NEWS ARTICLES OF JONLAC

UBE AND THE MASS MEDIA: STRIKING A GOLDEN ACCORD I.S. POPOOLA Lecturer, Department of Mass Communication, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Lagos, Akoka Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria. Tel: GSM 08023405801. E-mail: tayonigeria@yahoo.com ABSTRACT “The basic goal of the media is fact-finding and fact-giving”, so quipped renowned communication scholar, Alfred E. Opubor. In other words, it is the statutory duty of the mass media, as trustee of the public, to determine what is, and saying that it is; and saying so publicly. The question is: Could this be said to be what the mass media in the country have been doing with regard to the implementation of the Universal Basic Education Programme (UBE)? What should be the role of the mass media in a democratic, multi-party Federal State like Nigeria, where the goal of some state authorities under the control of another political party whose goals are at variance with that of the government at the centre is to thwart and frustrate the implementation of Federal programmes designed to uplift the people? This is the thrust of this paper. To dissect the role of the mass media in the implementation of the UBE scheme thus far and prescribe how the media could strike a 'golden' accord with Federal authorities in order that the lofty objectives of the scheme could be realized. The study is carried out through Content Analysis method of conducting research. 1.1 INTRODUCTION Education is a light to every human being. Just as it's practically inescapable to avoid having contact with light in our day-to-day activities, in the same way, education remains an inescapable path to human greatness. This explains why it is often said that an educated nation is a wealthy nation. Nigeria is still by and large a country with a large proportion of illiterate population. The Federal Office of statistics (FOS) in a (1995: 45) study revealed that 33.6 percent of the children ages 6-11 never attended primary school. In addition, Nwaigwu (2001: 186) states that education statistics for 1996 showed that only 14.1 million children were enrolled in primary school out of the 21 million children of school going-age”. Apart from various literacy programmes of several States of the Federation put together to address the problem, the current Peoples. Democratic Party (PDP) led Federal Government believes in tackling the problem from the grassroots and thus introduced the Universal Basic Education programme (UBE) with its official launching by President Olusegun Obasanjo on 30th September, 1999. To some analysts, the UBE is a re-incarnation of the defunct Universal Primary Education (UPE) programme of Chief Olusegun Obasanjo when he was in the saddle as military Head of State between 1976 and 1979. Whether it is seen as a new wine in old bottle or new wine in a new bottle, the fact remains that the UBE scheme reflects the thinking and concern of a Nigerian leader to secure a good future for Nigerian children, our leaders of tomorrow. What are the objectives of the UBE? How has the Mass Media carried out their traditional functions with regard to the UBE? How could the Mass Media help in the attainment of the lofty objectives of UBE? These are some of the issues thoroughly treated in this paper. The paper has a heroic mission of advocating a golden accord between the UBE scheme and the Mass Media. 1.2 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK i MASS MEDIA: Leading authorities in the field of Mass Communication had at one time or the other variously conceptualized the Mass Media. According to Uyo (1987:1) “the Mass Media are the engine of Mass Communication”. Thus, in the context of Uyo, the various avenues through which an undifferentiated set of people could be reached at any point in time through a complex mechanical device, both print and electronic are the organisations involved when we talk about the Mass Media. In the words of Akinfeleye (1988:89) “Mass Media simply refer to the print Media. That is, the newspapers, magazines, newsletters etc. they also refer to the radio, television, cinematography and flim” ii UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION: Fondly referred to by its acronym- UBE, the Universal Basic Education scheme remains the most ambitious scheme of any government of the federation since independence with a heroic mission to universalize access to basic education, engender a conducive learning environment and eradicate illiteracy in Nigeria within the shortest possible time. Prior to the launching of the UBE scheme by President Olusegun Obasanjo on September 30th, 1999, the programme had existed at microscopic level in the country in the past. For instance, in 1952, the defunct Western Regional Government developed a UBE blue print, which took off in 1955. In 1954, the defunct Eastern Regional Government rolled out a programme of free primary education, which led to the implementation of its UPE scheme in 1957. In 1976, the programme was introduced in the Northern Region Periscoping the various UPE schemes, Popoola (2001:222) states that: All the regional and federal UPE schemes have similar goals, objectives, curriculum content and organizational arrangements similar to the newly introduced UBE scheme. In other words, the UBE is an extension of UPE. It is however instructive to note that while the UPE scheme was nationally introduced 26 years ago, primary education is yet to be free and compulsory for all Nigerian children. 2.0 OBJECTIVES OF UBE SCHEME The implementation guidelines for the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme (2001:2) succinctly outlined the objectives of the scheme thus: To develop in the entire citizenry, a strong consciousness for education and a strong commitment for its rigorous promotion. To provide free, Universal basic education for every Nigerian child of school-going age. Reduce drastically, the incidence of dropout from the formal school system (through improved relevance, quality and efficiency). Cater for the learning needs of young persons who, for one reason or another, have had to interrupt their schooling through appropriate provision and promotion of basic education. Ensure the acquisition of the appropriate levels of literacy, numeracy, manipulative, communicative and life skills as well as the ethical, moral and civic values needed for laying a solid foundation for life-long learning. 2.1 MASS MEDIA AND THE UBE SCHEME A famous German communicator, Bertolt Brecht, in a (1987:1) publication asserts “even God is guided on world affairs by newspapers”. Brecht stated this while emphasizing the role of the press in the modern world. Another great communication scholar, Georg Lichten-berg (Ibid:1) stresses that “lead changed the world more than gold, especially, the lead in printing types rather than in bullets”. A renowned political thinker and statesman, Thomas Jefferson, speaking in the same fashion declares that: Were it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate to prefer the latter (Koch & Paden 1944:1). Jefferson was therefore of the opinion that society cannot do without the Mass Media. The pertinent question to then ask is: How has the various Media establishments in the country carried out their statutory-cum-traditional functions, especially, that of education, information and enlightening the citizenry with regard to the implementation of the UBE scheme? Prescribing the statutory obligation of the Mass Media, Article 22 of the 1999 constitution states that: The press, radio, television and other agencies of the Mass Media shall at all times be free to uphold the fundamental objectives contained in this chapter and uphold the responsibility and accountability of the government to the people. It is however questionable or debatable if the Mass Media have worked in this direction. Whereas, in a democracy, according to Akpan, (1985:253) “the air waves belong to the people”. In a democratic society such as ours, the press as whole is expected to be a market place of thoughts. As a matter of fact, the media exist to serve the information needs of the citizenry. Hence, Mass Media practitioners as a whole work on the principle that the public is entitled to all the facts in a political situation and that on the basis of these facts, it can make its own decision. A major clog in the wheel of Nigerian progress since independence has often been that of opposition parties controlling states working against laudable programmes of the Federal Government under the guise of politicking. For instance, during Nigeria's Second Republic, (1979-1983), the defunct Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) controlled states worked against the laudable housing programme of the then National Party Nigeria (NPN) controlled Federal Government. The UPN states apart from deliberately delaying the release of land for the building of the housing estates also frustrated the implementation of the project. Whereas, if they had co-operated with the Federal Government in the implementation of the scheme, the project would have helped in ameliorating the problem of acute shortage of houses, especially, in the cities in the country today. As it was then, so it is at the moment in some of the AD controlled states as the AD controlled states are not only hostile to the scheme but also working against its success. In Lagos State for instance, the State Commissioner for Education, Prof. Idowu Sobowale, was quoted by The Post Express newspaper edition of June 19, 2002 page 14 as saying “the UBE scheme is not relevant in Lagos state” adding that “while we have been implementing our own UBE from May 29, 1999, the Federal Government's version although launched in the same 1999 has not taken off”. As far as I'm concerned, this is an unfair report. It is simply one-sided. Mere adding a sentence that “the Honorable Commissioner failed to add that his government contributed to the late take off of the scheme in the state by not releasing land for the building of the six block of classrooms for the take off of the scheme in Lagos State would have given readers a true picture of the matter. The crux of the matter is that as far back as 2001, the Lagos State Government had unmistakably demonstrated its opposition to the scheme under flimsy excuses. 2.2 UBE IN THE WEB OF “DIRTY” POLITICKING As hinted above, a number of states, especially, states under the control of opposition parties are either playing dirty politics or hide and seek game with the UBE scheme. The Lagos State Government for instance, while applauding the UBE projects as “ Complimentary to its own programme of free, qualitative education” said in a 3-page letter dated 24th March 2001, signed by the Chairman of State Primary Education Board (SPEB), Alhaji Mukadas Fujah, to the Vice President, Atiku Abubakar, that in spite of the fact that the project is laudable, two problems deserve what he called “urgent attention.” “There is problem of land scarcity in Lagos State. Secondly, your consultants’ estimates of N5, 019,205.34k as a unit cost of the recommended three classrooms, a store, office and VIP toilet is twice the going price in the construction market in Lagos State. “The State government is understandably unwilling to compound the injudicious use of land with an even more grossly inefficient use of funds.” Fujah further claimed that the project could lead to what he called “an industrial disharmony in the local construction industry as a result of this highly extravagant unit cost”. Investigation however revealed that the initial demand of states was that the federal government should release the money meant for the construction of the classrooms to them but when the federal government rejected the demand on the account that the state could divert the money elsewhere, the states resorted to playing all sorts of hide and seek game. The national co-ordinator of the UBE, Prof. Pai Obanya said it all while deflating the various issues raised by the Lagos state government for its lukewarm attitude to the project. In a letter dated 15th April 2001 addressed to Alh. Fujah and the governor of Lagos State, Sen. Bola Tinubu, Prof Obanya said “it is not a hidden fact that SPEBS have disdain for 'centrally directed' construction of schools and that it would prefer decentralization by which the resources would be made to them to execute the projects. This is a policy matter and a political one”. On the cost of construction of the classrooms per block, Prof. Obanya said “bills of quantity for school projects submitted to us by Lagos SPEB… showed that some of the rates in use by our consultants in the year 2001 are even less than some of the rates used by Lagos SPEB. If the SPEB wishes to stand by its claims, it will mean that they have been over-invoicing in their bills of quantities… to maximize resources from the National funds”. On the allegation that the cost of the building would cause industrial disharmony, Prof. Obanya dismissed the claim saying “the fear is unfounded, alarmist and purely political in nature with the singular aim of leaving no options to the outright release of the entire funds to the SPEB”. The UBE co-ordinator therefore warned “the Lagos SPEB should be told in non-equivocal terms to desist from holding federal government to ransome by delaying further the construction of the classrooms”. While the Lagos state government was opposed to the project for selfish reasons, opinion leaders in the north are of the view that government made mistake by focusing first on the children instead of the parents. According to Alh. Mohammed Bello, Chief Executive/Director-General, Borno State Mass Literacy Agency:- Government should have concentrated on educating the parents first to create the basis for the successful take off of the programme. Unfortunately, the concentration of the government was on children first which made the parents to withdraw their subjects after a year or so, turning the programme to failure in the past three years. There is no way you can force the parents to take their children to schools if they are not interested. So, the issue of compulsory UBE should not be there at all without adult education. (Vanguard newspaper, 13th June, 2002. pg 22) The Borno State Agency For Mass Literacy boss was so categorical that “UBE will end up a failure like the former UPE if the large majority of the illiterate parents are not properly enlightened or educated through the non formal education schemes (Ibid: 22). 2.3 UBE AND THE MASS MEDIA, STRIKING A GOLDEN ACCORD It could be seen thus far that a lot of things are happening behind the scene. There are subtle and overt plots by states to abort the laudable objectives of the UBE scheme earlier outlined in 2.0 above. Till recently when the Supreme Court ruled that the control of primary education is placed on the doorstep of States, several States of the Federation made frantic efforts to frustrate the implementation of the scheme. The mass media so far have shown a sort of lukewarm attitude to the UBE scheme and that is why some States could be bold enough to overtly work against its success for selfish reasons. A lot of issues worth reporting are either ignored by the mass media or poorly treated. Thus, according to Uyo (1996:59), “the press in Nigeria is not doing enough, or can do much more than it is doing now towards righting what is critically wrong with the civil society”. The basic goal of the media is fact-finding and fact-giving. That is the function of news operations; determining what is, and saying that it is, and saying so publicly (Opubor, 1985:230). It would be a fundamental contribution of the mass media to the sustenance of the current democratic experiment when societal ills as well as anti-people attitudes of those in government are exposed. The point could be made that the excesses of some of the states with regard to the implementation of the UBE scheme could have been checked if the media had risen to the occasion. For instance, is it not funny and unbelievable that while the Lagos State Government claimed shortage of land for the UBE scheme, at the same time, the government never complains about land to construct its LSDPC houses across the state? The media should condemn such attitude through news, news analysis, features, editorial, cartoons, documentary etc. The argument of land scarcity is not only offensive but also absurd because the constitution even allows acquisition of private property in the interest of the public. This is where the golden accord between the mass media and the UBE scheme is necessary. The media should see the UBE as their project because as trustee of the public, whatever involves the entire children of Nigeria involves the entire citizenry. Recently, Education Minister, Prof. Babalola Borishade, disclosed, “the Federal government has expended over N3 billion on the UBE. The Minister who spoke while addressing airport correspondents in Lagos said the amount was spent on the construction of four blocks of six classrooms in each of the 774 local councils in the country. This report, when viewed from the angle of two of the six major determinants of news, otherwise called the 5Ws & H of news reporting: magnitude and the personality who gave the information should have made the story a front-page material, but most newspapers, somewhere inside, buried it. In a related development, the Star FM radio station in Lagos quoted the Hon. Minister as saying 18 million children registered for the UBE scheme in the current school year. This figure was two million more than the original projection. The story was not listed as one of the major stories in the bulletin when it was aired. The newspapers also treated it poorly inside their pages. Whereas, according to Nwaigwu (2001:186) education statistics for 1996 revealed “21 million Nigerian children are of school-going age”. Therefore, juxtaposing the 18 million children who registered with 21 million school going-age of our children makes the story a big one worth front-page treatment or inside page lead, unfortunately, it was equally shabbily treated. The truth of the matter is that if the media do not attach importance to certain stories, the public cannot be expected to attach seriousness to such story. That is why the media are reputed to be an Agenda setting institution. According to Folarin (1998: 68), Agenda setting implies that the mass media pre-determine what issues are regarded as important at a given time in a given society. Agenda setting theory does not ascribe to the media the power to determine what we actually think; but it does ascribe to them the power to determine what we are thinking about. 2.4 CONCLUSION This paper has made the point that the country's mass media are not doing enough to support the implementation of the UBE scheme. The paper also calls for a change in attitude so as to enable our leaders of tomorrow secure their tomorrow firmly today through adequate education. It also charged the media to expose and discourage dirty politicking by state governments who often times selfishly opposed federal government's policies for political reasons. This, invariably, is the golden accord advocated by the paper with regard to the implementation of the UBE scheme. Conclusively, it is hereby suggested that to enlist the support of the mass media in the implementation of the UBE scheme, there should be regular parley between media executives, editors and education correspondents where government would enlighten them about the objectives of the programme and also enlist their support. Secondly, the bureaucratic concept of anonymity, which forbade civil servants from speaking to newsmen, must be jettisoned if the media are to lend support. There should be accessibility of the media to information about activities of the scheme. Alternatively, a Public Relations Officer (PRO) who would liaise with the media establishments could be employed. BIBLIOGRAPHY Akinfeleye Ralph (1999), “Mass Communication Education and Human Resources in Nigeria: Problems and Prospects” in Contemporary Issues in Mass Media for Development and National Security, Unimedia Publications Ltd. Akpan Emmanuel (1985), 'Broadcast Journalism in a Multi-party state', in Mass Communication in Nigeria, A book of Reading (ed) Onuora Nwuneli; Fourth Dimension Publishers Baskakov Edward (1987), Information and Nuclear Free World, Allied Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi,. FG Spends N3bn on UBE, This Day newspaper, 29th October, 2002. Folarin Babatunde (1998), Theories of Mass Communication: An introductory Text, Stiring-Horden Publishers (Nig.) Ltd, Ibadan,. Implementation Guidelines for Universal Basic Education (UBE) Programme, Federal Ministry of Education, Abuja, (2000). “Net Primary School Enrolment of Children Age 6 11”, in Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, Federal Office of Statistics, Lagos (1995). Nwangwu Rosemary E. (2001), “Implications of Implementing the Universal Basic Education (UBE) scheme for non formal education in Nigeria”, in Journal of Educational Thought, Vol. 1, NO. 2. Opubor Alfred E. (1985)., “Public Communication Policies and the Mass Media in the New Nigeria”, in Mass Communication in Nigeria; A book of reading (ed) Onura E. Nwuneli, Fourth Dimension Publishers, Enugus Peden William and Adrienne Koch (eds) (1944), The Life and Standard of Thomas Jefferson, New York: Modern Library. Popoola Timothy O. (2001), “Nigeria Universal Basic Educational Scheme, Learning from Universal Primary Education Experience” in Journal of Educational Thought, Vol. 1, No. 2. Section 22 of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Federal Government Press (1999) Lagos. The Post Express newspaper edition of June 19, 2001. “UBE will fail like UPE”, Vanguard newspaper, 13th June, 2002. Uyo O. Adidi (1987), Mass Communication Media: Classification and Characteristics, Civiletis International, New York,. Uyo Adidi (1996), “The press and civil society”, in Nigeria: The Mass Media and Democracy. Civil Liberties Organisation, Lagos, CULTURAL DEPRIVATION AND COMPENSATORY EDUCATION: THE UBE ATTEMPT (PANACEA). OKWECHIME OKEY Department of English and Literature University of Benin ABSTRACT The Universal Basic Education (UBE) is quite popular and appears widely accepted partly because it appealed in different ways to separate political ideologies. Liberals see it as an attempt to be more egalitarian, providing equality of opportunity, developing potential talents and helping the underprivileged. Conservatives see it as means of social control, preventing discontent and riots and imbuing middle class virtual. This paper posits that UBE is a compensatory programme because it attempts to reach out to millions of young Nigerians lost in a gray world of poverty and neglect., especially those circumstances have stranded on an island of nothingness and emptiness. It also provides a viable opportunity for redressing the girl child education problems in Nigeria. INTRODUCTION From the dawn of civilization through the ages, education has had an altruistic function. It has always provided basic skills for something that society or a segment of it considered important. Compensatory Environment Compensatory education is defined here as services provided to students (pupils) who had been denied or deprived of the chance in the first instance to appropriate formal education. It is therefore a remedy provided by government to fill up the gap. Recognizing the imperatives for change, the promoters of UBE, got engaged in a process of reflection and debate on how it could most effectively contribute to development in the society. The UBE programme is no doubt a vital first step in an evolutionary process that will reshape and refine education in its role as the essential tool of national development. To achieve this point, UBE is succinctly seen as “Empowerment through knowledge”. This view is predicated on the explicit relationship that exists between knowledge and development and in the conviction that empowerment through knowledge is the key element in the development of nations, people, communities and individuals. Education or its process provides the means for the acquisition of appropriate knowledge and, hence, for development. The provision of the facility for knowledge therefore, is a necessary plight for empowerment. The UBE programme is dedicated to creating, maintaining, and enhancing capacity building in developing the nation nay individuals. It will also help in response to needs that are determined by the people in the interest of equity and social justice. As a remedy UBE provides a new perspective on development. The political, economic, social, cultural and environmental changes in our country have created an entirely new context for developing indices. The rapidly shifting political environment has produced some positive results. The predominant feature of the post military era that brought in democratic civil rule of balance of power has gradually began a process of civil transformation knowledge is being appreciated better than ever before. Totalitarianism is in retreat in the country as democracy and political pluralism spread and take hold more political parties were recently registered. Repressive policies meet with increasingly vocal protest and often-international sanctions. Cultural and Environmental Deprivation Cultural deprivation incorporates nations of cultural pluralism and special needs. Underlying these is the pervasive sense of cultural harmony, which overlooks the prime goals of equality of opportunity and equality of condition. Population growth has resulted in an increase in rural-urban migration. Rapid urbanization has created huge demands for housing, sanitation, transportation and energy supply. This adds unmet urban needs and wide spread urban poverty to the deprivation that characterizes rural populations throughout the country. Over population also leads to unemployment and under employment, which have emerged as two of the most troublesome and dangerous phenomena in the country. This creates not just the poor, but also the culture of poverty. Cultural and environmental deprivation equally affect, inform and influence policies and thinking about development. Among the most pervasive of the many cultural problems are religious values, ethnic allegiances and the rise of fundamentalism. In several parts of this country, these phenomena constitute the predominant influence on the lives of people and communities. They are complicated when the wish to preserve cultural identity, comes into conflict with the tendency of the mass media to promote a “foreign” culture. The first implication is the need to rethink what we mean by “development”. The underlying notion that development is a linear process is no longer valid. According to Yesufu (1996:32) development means people and its rightful essence is the welfare of the people. In the view of Egudu (1999:24) there must be a “moral component” to the human dimension of development before it can be meaningful. This human essence of development inevitably implies not just the holistic idea of economic advancement (betterment), it is by and large the advancement of greater human dignity, justice and equity, Okwechime (2002:203). More and more, the term empowerment captures the true essence of what development should be. Granted that it cannot and should not be imposed upon a society from outside, development should mean above all giving people the power, defined in terms of adequate knowledge and capacity, to decide what is best for them and to act accordingly in fulfilling their own destinies. The second implication for the UBE programme as compensatory to be deprived is the generation, dissemination, and application of knowledge will become even more important in the development process. Indeed, one can say that the essential difference between developed and developing, rich and poor is the knowledge gap the capacity to generate, acquire, disseminate and use scientific and technological knowledge. The UBE is based on the explicit understanding (philosophy) of a full intellectual partnership with states to the recipients. The Federal and State Governments define plans and priorities jointly. Gender and Educational Inequality A very big gap exists between males and females in opportunities for access to education in Nigeria. Family, religious, culture and economic factors are the main determinants of the relatively low access of women to education. Nwagwu (1998:126) has suggested that Adult Literacy, bursaries for women financial inducement, compulsory primary and free junior secondary education among other factors or incentives should be employed to help check inequalities in Nigerian educational system. Research has shown that women's educational potentials has been delimited and not fully realized in Nigeria due to socio-cultural prejudices and practices. These disadvantages place women in what may be deemed or regarded as sub-ordinate position (UNICEF 1990; Alele-Williams 1991; Ojogwu 2000). Education is central to development, freedom and human rights in any civilized society. It is equally one of the basic social services provided from taxpayers' money by the government. The justification behind the UBE, no doubt is to empower the people in this country for a better life. The scheme which is aimed at making education free and compulsory for the first nine years beginning from primary class one and terminating in J.S.S. 3 was launched in September 1999 to help produce better Nigerian citizens. It is essentially meant to provide equal opportunities to all sexes. It is a widely held national opinion that education is an important tool for sustainable national development (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1998:5-8). Ukeje (1986:4) states that education is universally accepted as one of the catalysts for social, economic and technological development. Until recently, the education of women in Nigeria was considered as a big waste; in short it had little or no relevance (Amali 1991:10). Education if effectively employed could help in mobilizing Nigerian women for national development (Nwaubani, 2000:14). This will be achieved when the society has been rid of stereotypical thinking hinged on patriarchal thinking. In this paper, equality of educational opportunities is both a constitutional and educational policy. We have also identified three levels or areas that the UBE can help achieve equality. · Equal right to education without gender bias. · Equal right to receive equal treatment during education (process). The same content, skills, procedures and processes and activities should be made available to both sexes. · Equal right to equal opportunities to succeed in and through education giving maximum opportunity to each person as a person without any stereotypical treatment. Open equal avenues for each individual to acquire the highest operational intelligence at the person's pace (Izuwa 1998:65). We wish to acknowledge Eheazu's (1998:149) observation of some fundamental issues that bother on differences inherent in human situations that will inevitably make equality of educational opportunities impracticable. For example genetic endowment and dispositions, both negative and positive cultural background and social class barriers also affect gender issues. This paper however asserts that the UBE programme as a compensatory philosophy provides a mean, a springboard and a level playing ground as it were for all participants without bias. Nature's distributive role is also noted, but, then, the UBE will ultimately take care of gray areas world of poverty and neglect. It will surely offer hope to the hopeless and sight to the blind academically (See The Song Of The Educated Man at the end). Akinpelu (1981) and Fagbamiye (1997) expressed similar view. Emphasis should be placed on the education of the girl child because, that would help reduce the number of illiterate Nigerian women. Participation in the UBE programme will enable them acquire basic functional literacy and numeracy. This knowledge will logically lead to improvement in their various occupations. The acquisition of the basic knowledge of education will definitely raise their intellectual outlook in life, and improve their emotional, physical and psychological health. DEFINING BASIC EDUCATION Basic education is the provision of essential, basic literacy and numeracy to all and sundry. Our attempt to define what will be considered as basic education further, will lead us to priority levels as follows: · Pre-primary, · Primary · The handicapped · Nomads and disadvantaged occupational groups · Women, · Out-of-school youths · Illiterate and neo-literate adults. In providing the basic literacy and numeracy knowledge, the emphasis should be on relevance and equality. The focus also should be on the learner, to make him or her more productive and more responsible citizen. In addition to the acquisition of literacy and numeracy, the basic education will also provide opportunities to develop problem-solving skills and to acquire values that are in consonance with positive development of the societies. It will also enable recipients to acquire attitudes and broad cognitive competencies. The practice and outcomes of education are determined essentially by social and economic factors. The phenomenal increase in population, the pernicious influence of growing drug abuse, and high crime rate along with environmental degradation, globalization and the pressure to modernize society have all produced different effects on the populace. The provision of basic education will go a long way in bringing back some form of sanity into our society. Some critics or cynics have pointed out that the assumption that once UBE is provided free, that of itself would create a demand for education, had become a miscalculation. To hold tenaciously to this view is to deny the gradual but steady increase in educational awareness. It will also amount to attempt to give a lie to the obvious political awareness of the people due to the effect of education. In spite of the systemic weakness that may be associated with the execution of the UBE, its advantages cannot be overemphasized. Mistakes of the past have taught that for a sustained and effective education programme, on such a massive scale, certain pre-requisites must be put in place. For example, strategic plans for basic education cannot depend solely on annual budgeting. A guard against unstable economies and unstable political environment can be in form of laws legislation. The sheer size of the basic education concept makes it compelling for options to be based on facts not on intuition. In fact, there should be a needs assessment research. SOCIAL SYSTEMIC FAILURE The socio-political system along with leadership problem in the country makes the UBE programme most compelling as a panacea. This is so because the vicious circle of poverty, which ensures a self-perpetuating and ineradicable culture of poverty, can only be dealt with through knowledge acquisition. Due to poverty most deprived children appear to suffer essentially from economic hardship of their parents. The damage to the children occurs early in life and appears inseparable. By the age of six or seven slum children have absorbed the basic values of the sub-culture and are not psychologically geared to take full advantage of changing conditions. What is more, compensatory education at this point faces the problem of genetic factors. The development of IQ is affected by environmental factor and the development of IQ often occur pre-natally and in the first year of the life associated mainly with the nourishment of the mother and child. The home factor cannot be overlooked. The home and family help in perpetuating the gray world of these children. There is inadequate mothering, mothers who do not talk to their children, mothers who go out to work, have no time be with the children. Separated parents or singled parenting has its untold effect on the children. Lack of books in the house, and absence of a stimulating environment contributes to the cultural deprivation of the children. Visually, the urban slums (shanty) and the overcrowded houses offer the child a minimal range of stimuli. Be that as it may, compensatory education is based on levels of needs to be met. A language deficit is also prevalent in these deprived children. What is lacking is the use of language to explain, to describe, to inquire, to analyze, to compare, to deduce and to test. And these are uses that are necessary for academic success. As a result, the UBE, as an academically oriented programme covering activities from pre-school to J.S.S. is offered as compensation to the deprived children - to teach these poor children language skills. The syntactic structures of the children from deprived homes and the rural populace are quite different from that of the middle-class children. The argument that as children they have the same basic vocabulary, posses the same capacity for conceptual learning and use the same logic as anyone else who learns to speak and understand English is nothing short of presenting a truncated view, because it amounts to denial of the obvious advantages of the good home to the children. Indeed, the deprived children do not hear or speak enough well formed sentences in Standard English. This verbal deprivation affects their social reality The need for strengthening the UBE programme is dramatized by the continuing gap in performance between economically disadvantaged students and others in measures of academic achievements. The interest is in improving the effectiveness of the compensatory education programme, which offers supplementary instruction to children (deprived) group that is disproportionately economically disadvantaged. ENHANCING THE COMPENSATORY EDUCATION CURRICULUM FOR DEPRIVED STUDENTS The formulation and development of compensatory education programs is informed by the belief that deprived students will benefit most from a less challenging curriculum. In that sense, the emphasis is on basic skills in reading and mathematics, vocational rather than academic programs. More often than not, there is a lack of clarity about the purpose of compensatory education services based on divergent perceptions of the recipients. For example, reading is often taught as an unrelated skill i.e reading of reading texts not as a skill needed for other learning and study areas. To enrich the UBE programme, there should be congruence between curricula what are to be taught, in what order, and using which materials and between the methods of instruction. It should be pointed out that conflict could arise when the reading strategies taught and learned in one setting are radically different from those in the second setting. So, the process should be sequential and chronological. Standard educational programme provides for learning opportunities in both cognitive and affective areas, in skills of learning how-to-learn and learning how to be a disciplined students. The curriculum and instruction for the deprived should deal more with developmental rather than remedial learning. A variety of cognitive strategies such as goal setting, comprehension, problem-solving, elaboration, planning and self-questioning should be taught and the programme should emphasize their development by encouraging teaching, thinking skills to allow the deprived students to create the scheme necessary for the mind to store, order, and make sense of various observations, facts, and events that they are exposed to. Literacy does not begin and end with a concept of basic skills or minimum competency. A literate person has an approach to language that transcends the medium of print. The programme should ensure that attention is paid to integrating the reading, writing, and oral language elements of literacy and comprehension. The improvement of the teaching of mathematics is as expressed by Romberg (1986). The compensatory programme in mathematics should fall into three broad categories: (a) Enrichment programme that provides low-income children with experiences and intellectual challenges that the middle-class have. (b) Differential programme, which treat deprived students differently from middle-class children. It consists of mastery learning that uses computers and other aids as management tools and standardized tests as assessment instrument. (c) Direct drill methods that teach arithmetic skills by emphasizing right answers rather than appropriate processes and developmentally based programmes, which are geared to the level of a child's conceptual thoughts after his or her cognitive functioning has been determined. It is our opinion that mathematics should be taught in the compensatory programme as a language and science that orders the universe, as a tool for representing true-life plights, defining relationships, solving problems both abstract and concrete and as a subject for thinking. The curriculum for compensatory education should not be limited in scope to instructions in reading and mathematics. It should be as comprehensive, rich and balanced as that provided in regular school schemes. Success on basic tests of reading and achievement is important, no doubt, but such minimal competencies are only a part of the total package of educational goals and objectives for all students. Deprived learners need access to a sound core curriculum of reading and language arts, writing, mathematics, social studies, science, fine arts, health, physical education and if possible a second language. They equally need access to vocational and technical curricula and a copious variety of electives. This will ultimately lead to a psychological development that will emphasize the social nature of intelligence as against genetic theories. Finally to achieve enhancement in the UBE programme, it should be pointed out that the skills, knowledge, understanding and insights that constitute a general and common education (most especially at the elementary level) are essential for all children and all engaged in the process of knowledge acquisition. CONCLUSION In this paper we have broadened compensatory education to include gender and other forms of diversity. Those who are from poor homes and lacked access to education early in life or dropped out midway from school are defined or classified as culturally deprived. Culture is not used in the anthropologist sense of the word. We looked at culture as a way of being, thinking and feeling. It is considered as a driving force animating a significant group of individuals united by common tongue and sharing the same customs, habits and experiences. What unites all (groups) recipients of UBE programme is not just common culture but common exposure to manifold discrimination and being an “outsider” non-literate. We have demonstrated that the UBE programme is a manifestation of compensatory education based on empowerment through knowledge. Resources alone are not sufficient, people should be empowered by knowledge to determine and meet their own needs without damaging their neighbour or their children's prospect of doing the same. The increase in child abuse, plus the acknowledged need for additional aid to help deprived students to read and write indicate that the compensatory education will in the final analysis be one of the most effective means of reducing educational inequalities. We therefore, align with the interest in continuing to improve the effectiveness of the compensatory education which offers the possibility of giving children of low-income parents the educational preparation they will need to be able to function successfully in life and support themselves and their future families through rewarding and productive work. The philosophy to guide the UBE programme should be to do the best possible for every child left behind due to societal circumstance. Just because of the luck of birth, some people get, and some do not. Compensatory education as a form of supplementary instruction designed to meet or bridge previously lost grounds should follow a systematic procedure for annual programme evaluation. Record keeping must be emphasized to ensure maintenance and improvement of the programme. The demoralized and delinquent can find redemption in the UBE scheme. The programme will also help reduce gender inequality in terms of education and cultural stereotyping. Because persons of the same ethnicity can have very different beliefs and practices once given education as an enlightenment tool. The UBE programme is essentially designed to repair the child not necessarily the school. But the school must supply a compensating environment for the UBE pupils. We have to end the separation of home and school. Too much is at stake to let the foolish lack of communication between both to persist. The programme will in the final analysis bridge the gap between them and us the literate and non-literate. RECOMMENDATIONS The following recommendations are put forward to enable the scheme achieve greater efficiency. · There should be a sharper programme focus to meet the dynamic nature of society. · A (re) structuring of the programme should be aimed at to maximize the impact of available resources. · There should be perseverance in the executor's efforts. · Greater efficiency in programme execution and administration should be pursued and the promoters of the programme should aim at flexibility and agility to adjust as conditions and experience dictate. · Most importantly, the scheme should not be inadequately funded. Finally, as a panacea, the UBE programme is at best a metaphorical lifeboat strategy, helping not just a handful of talented youths but the majority left behind in a sinking system of ignorance and deprivation as it were. Note: The Song of the Educated Man You no sabi Read and write You blind - oh! You wear big agbada Under dignity, You no complete If you sabi read and write And speak good English Na him make you Complete person. Radio Jingle REFERENCES Akinpelu J.A. (1981) An Introduction to Philosophy of Education, London: Macmillan. Allele-Williams G. (1991) “Women Education and its Implication for Development”, Keynote Address at the International Conference on Women Education and African Development. Institute of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Amali E. (1991) “Developing Nigerian Women Managers for the Socio-Economic Transformation of Nigeria” Management in Nigeria Vol. 27, No.6, pp.6-13. Egudu, R.N. (1999) “Poetry and Development in Africa” Paper Presented at the 1999 Symposium of the Nigerian Academy of Letters, Lagos. 11-13 August 1999. Eheazu (1998) The Roles of Parastatals and Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO's) Organised Private Sector in Fostering Equality of Educational Opportunities in Nigeria. JENDIC Vol.2 No.1 July. 1998. Fagbamiye D.E. (1997) “The Future in the Instant, Managing Nigerian Education for Development” Inaugural Lecture Series, University of Lagos, Press. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1998) National Policy on Education, Lagos: Government Press pp.5-8. Izuwa L.G. (1998) “Towards Micro-teaching in NINLAN Language Teacher Education Programme and Equal Education Opportunity” JENDIC Vol.2, No.1 July 1998 Nwagwu C.C. (1998) “Inequalities in Nigerian Education: The Case of Women Participation” in Advances in the Field of Education. The Nigerian Experience. S.O. Oriaifo and R.O. Olubor (Eds) Benin City Nigeria. The Institute of Education, University of Benin, Benin City. pp.124-133. Nwaubani O. (2002) “Women Education and National Development in Nigeria” in Aloy Ejiogu and R.A. Alani (Eds) Emergent Issues in Nigerian Education Lagos: Mukugamu (Nig) Company. Ojogwu C.N. (2000) “Women and Discipline in Informal and Formal Systems of Education” in Benin Journal of Educational Studies Vol.12 and 113, No.1 and 2, January and July, 1999 & 2000. Institute of Education, University of Benin, Benin City. pp.165-189. Okwechime, E O. (2002) “Women's Empowerment, Equality and Development” In Afolabi Ojo ( Ed) Women and Gender Equality for a Better Society in Nigeria. Lagos: Leaven Club International. Romberg T.A. (1986) “Mathematics for Compensatory School Programme” In B.I. Williams, P.A. Richmond, and B.J. Mason (Eds). Designs for Compensatory Education: Conference Proceedings and Papers. Washington, D.C. Research and Evaluation Associates, Inc. Ukeje B.O. (1986) School and Society in Nigeria Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers. UNICEF (1990), The Girl Child: An investment in the Future, New York. FORMATION OF AN INFORMED CITIZENRY FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH UBE: THE LIBRARY FACTOR CHIDI NWOSU (MRS.) DEPARTMENT OF LIBRARY SCIENCE IMO STATE UNIVERSITY OWERRI ABSTRACT The paper explains the concept of UBE as the free education of the Nigerian child for the first nine years of schooling. It identifies its goal as the formation of an informed citizenry which in the view of the author is of great value in national development. It highlights some ways in which an informed citizenry will affect national development. The paper further argues that the library as a collection of books is central to the achievement of the aims of UBE as books contain varied knowledge beneficial to the child in ways identified. It regrets that the library has not been given its pride of place in the UBE programme and suggests that government should urgently attend to the library needs of children especially by providing money for equipping the school library and the relevant sections of the public library in Nigeria. INTRODUCTION: Universal Basic Education (UBE) in very simple language means free education for all Nigerian children for the first nine years of their schooling i.e. from primary one to junior secondary school (JSS) III. The idea of free education is not new in Nigeria. Its antecedents can be found in the defunct Universal Primary Education (UPE) of the late 1950s and early 1960s in Awolowo controlled Western Region and the nation wide UPE of the 1970s which offered free education to children in the areas covered, up to primary six. These earlier programmes were viewed by their sponsoring governments as excellent ways of extending educational opportunities to all children within the areas of coverage in order to eradicate illiteracy and its scourge. It was thought that the basic education so acquired would act as a springboard launching the beneficiaries into further adventures either in education or in other spheres of life. Today, the beneficiaries of the programmes remain grateful to the initiating governments and are all over the country contributing their bits to national development. The current initiative of the Obasanjo led Federal Government aims beyond the eradication of illiteracy; the period of benefit has been increased to nine years in order to give the child a wider scope of knowledge. The project is in line with the Seventh Principle of the United Nations (1979) Declaration of the Right of children which states: The child is entitled to receive education which shall be free and compulsory at least in the elementary stages. He should be given an education which will promote his general culture, and enable him on the basis of equal opportunity to develop his abilities, his individual judgement, and his sense of social and moral responsibility and be a useful member of his society. UBE is thus, a seed project for an informed Nigerian citizenry. An informed citizenry is an immense asset to the nation. Government has demonstrated her understanding of this by her willingness to invest so much on the education of the Nigerian child through UBE. To undercut the excuse of inability to acquire basic education due to costs, government working through the UBE programme undertakes to bankroll all educational expenses no fees, free textbooks and exercise books, etc. This, at least in principle, is a laudable programme. The Value of an Informed Citizenry in National Development: National development is the cumulative of progress in all facets of our national life Education, Politics / Government, Agriculture, Medicine, Law, Commerce/Economics, Culture and Socials. There is no such thing as one stop shop for national development; rather, it is a progressive transformation of the Nigerian nation from an extreme state of backwardness to a developed state. A nation's level of development will generally be assessed by the presence of the following :- improved infrastructure, respect for the rule of law, order, discipline, value for hygiene, poverty reduction and better living conditions for the people. The more these factors are in place in a country, the closer that country is to development state. The quest for national development in Nigeria demands the collective contributions of citizens. An informed citizenry will certainly boost national development because it has all the potentials to do so. Informed citizenry is a collectivity of individuals with knowledge and skills in diverse spheres which can be put to use to engender development. An informed citizenry, in contrast to an ignorant citizenry, is better equipped to appreciate the values of peace and harmony conditions necessary for progress and will therefore create an environment in which they will thrive. Violence, vandalism and other vices are the attributes of barbarians and symptoms of ignorance, which draw development back. The more enlightened the society becomes the less likely it is to perpetrate these vices. Also, an informed citizenry will promote democracy. Basically, the people become better aware of their rights and roles in a democracy, channel their demands for their rights properly and play their roles well. Altogether, this will push the nation forward. It may be important to also state that the more enlightened a people become, the more likely they are able to solve both personal and societal problems. An enlightened person will certainly impact positively on the society. Government spending on UBE is therefore an investment in the right direction. The ultimate goal of this investment is the production of an informed citizenry who will bring development faster to the nation at large. THE LIBRARY FACTOR IN UBE The library is a collection of books and other information media organized for use. If the goal of UBE is the making of an informed citizenry, then the library must be given a pride of place in the programme. Education at all levels requires copious use of the library for therein lies the treasure of knowledge sought for. Long ago, Thomas Carlyle recognized this fact and made a statement that has continued to be referenced: “But the place where we are to get knowledge, is the books themselves! It depends on what we read, after all manner of professors have done the Their best for us. The true University . . . Is a collection of books”. Although Carlyle was addressing a situation in higher education, the truth of his statement is applicable to lower levels of education. After all manner of teachers have done their best for the children, how much real knowledge a child has acquired will be decided by how reading he has done. No longer tenable is the educational system which Fayose (19995) has described as follows; “Many teachers in the Nigeria school system still see themselves as the beginning and end of teaching and learning. They come into the classroom with their 'notebooks of facts' which they drum into the ears of the children. The children are assumed to have the same abilities, the same socio- economic background and in fact all forty or so children are assumed to be one single child. The children sit in fixed positions in the classroom all day long and every day listening, perhaps out of compulsion to the teachers recitals. A pupil is good if he follows all the rules and regorges all that the teacher has given out . . . “ She has also informed that: “international trends in education have suggested a break from teacher-oriented, whole class instruction where the textbook reigns supreme and the pupil is passive, to a pupil-oriented situation where the individual child learns actually from a range of experiences arising from an environment rich in learning stimuli.” The library affords such an environment. Fayose's report on global trends in education is confirmed by Thompson's observation as follows :- “Modern system of teaching, not only in schools but right through the educational strata to university level tend to place more weight on the individual's own use of libraries and resource centers. In most schools, a rigid structure of class lessons has been abandoned in favour of heuristic methods; and in universities similarly, there has been a movement away from the formal lecture as the chief means of learning, towards the intimate and informal guidance provided by seminar and tutorials.” Time has come for Nigeria to cue into this global style of education which implies heavy use of books and libraries. Time has come for the condemnation of the new trend in schools (especially in private schools) where children are kept in school up to 5.00 p.m. 'learning.' This denies them the opportunity to read books other their class texts. A well-stocked library for the children will help them maximize the opportunity of UBE. Books facilitate the mental development of the child. A child that has been introduced early to reading becomes mentally ahead of his mates. This is because reading exercises the mind; just as physical exercise keeps the body fit, mental exercise of reading keeps the mind alert and ready for impression. Early reading sharpens a child's understanding and develops his ability for critical reasoning. It helps a child acquire vocabulary with which he can communicate effectively even with adults. A reading child is apt to be more articulate than other children who do not read. According to Fayose (1995), “Books can add in no small way to emotional, cultural, educational and psychological development of children and young people. Books have always been a source of information, comfort and pleasure for the people who know how to use them. In this respect, recreational reading is particularly useful.” Children's literature is by design usually didactic. Its varied lessons have been proved over the years to be helpful in solving growing-up problems in children. As a child reads, he identifies with the experiences of characters he meets in the book and this to a great extent can help him cope with and/or solve his own problems. Too often also, fictional characters read in books form role models for children as they desire to achieve the feats which those characters achieved in the books. In this way, children's literature becomes a source of challenge and inspiration for the growing child. At some other times, a book character comes into the court of the young reader who judges him and condemns his actions. This helps to develop the child's sense of judgement. Usually, after reading a fictional story, a child begins to ask himself “what would I have done if I had played the role of X in this book?” or better still, “what will I do if I find myself in a situation similar to that in which X found himself?” He will take a position based on his assessment of how well or how poorly the character played his part. The child is therefore, developing a sense of positive value from reading. Books broaden the outlook of the child. As the child reads literature foreign to his environment, he comes in contact with the cultures of other people and begins to appreciate what is good in those cultures. This in itself is an immense education. Younger adolescents find it pleasurable reading certain types of books that offer them a pip into adult life. These satisfy their emotional needs and prepares them for adult roles. Apart from fictional books, there are children's books that serve purely utilitarian purposes and they are very important for the self-development of the child. Such books in the “Teach yourself” series “Teach yourself Cooking,” “How to make soap,” “Teach yourself Cake Making,” “How to Give First Aid” etc provide invaluable lessons to children willing to learn how to do things for themselves. So far we have been trying to expose the many ways in which the book contributes to the development of the child. The following words of Fayose (1995) will serve as summary and conclusion to this segment of the paper: - “One of the main purposes of children's literature is to stimulate their tastes. A wide variety of reading materials will develop children's literary and aesthetic tastes. The many characters, situations and experiences encountered in books will nurture and deepen children's understanding as well as widen their interests. Imaginative literature provides its own education. Children can read and learn from other people's mistakes. They can also learn through their readings what are the accepted social norms. This will enable them fit better into the society in which they will function. Books are tools for socializing children into the Inherent values, assumptions and beliefs of the society in which they are produced”. The Problem It is easily discernible from the foregoing that adequate provision of library services is a sine qua non to the realization of the ultimate goal of UBE. Although Government appears to recognize the value of libraries in education, it remains to be demonstrated in concrete terms that this recognition is real. The attitude of Government toward the matter of school library development in Nigeria could be interpreted as lip-service as there is yet no matching action to support Government statements on it. The National Policy on Education (1981) states: “Libraries are one of the most important educational services. Every State Ministry of Education needs to provide funds for the establishment of libraries in all our educational institutions and to train librarians and library assistants for this service.” It presupposes that being adjudged “one of the most important educational services” the school libraries should rank high in the priority list of the States Ministries of Education. The painful reality however is that the States Ministries of Education appear encumbered with so much that they hardly feature the school library at any vantage point in their scale of preferences. Hence, our school libraries remain a sorry sight, betraying fund starvation and general neglect. In 1992, The Minimum Standards for School Libraries in Nigeria was issued by the Federal Ministry of Education, lending further credence to a possible concern for functional school library services by government. Ten years after issuance, this document has still not come into force. In fact, the picture of the school library in Nigeria today is still the same as it was painted in 1992 by Fafunwa A. B; while writing the “Foreword” to the Minimum Standards … as the then Federal Minister of Education, he had remarked “Despite their inestimable importance, school libraries in Nigeria are still clearly in their embryonic stage of development, displaying inadequacies in funding, staffing, collection, furniture, equipment and services provided.” But should the situation be allowed to persist ad infinitum? The way Forward One feels that now is the right time for government to gear up to its responsibility for school library development in Nigeria. With UBE now in place government should be seen to be willing to make it a success in all ramifications. Universal Basic Education without adequate library services is like the proverbial child sent to the farm without the basic tools. His achievement in the farm would be greatly limited. Government should without further delay take the following steps: 1. Commission a team of experts to (a) Study the library needs of school children and their teachers (b) Assess the library services currently available to them both at school and in the public libraries. 2. Release adequate funds for equipping the school libraries as well as the children and young adult's sections of the public libraries 3. Ensure the proper staffing of the libraries 4. Ensure that the States Ministries of Education keep faith with the provisions of the National Policy on Education in relation to library development. 5 Enforce the Minimum Standards for School Libraries in Nigeria which was issued in 1992. 6 Place sanctions on any authority that embezzles or misappropriates fund meant for the libraries. Adequately equipped libraries hold great potentials to help actualize the goals of UBE as they supplement classroom lessons as well as encourage the self-development of the child. On their own part, parents and lovers of children should understand that the issue is that of enhancing accessibility to books by children because of their inherent values. They should therefore think beyond provision of basic texts for their children and begin to develop private collections of varied reading materials for them. They could start by giving books as gifts to mark occasions such as birthdays, Christmas, Easter, a brilliant performance at school, in games, or cultural activities. REFERENCES Carlyle, T. Quoted in Pool H (ed.) (1977) Academic Libraries by the year 2000: Essays Honoring Jerrold Orne, New York: Bowker, P. 50. Fafunwa, A. B. (1992). Foreword to Minimum standards for school Libraries in Nigeria, Lago s: Federal Ministry of Education, P. 7 Fayose, P. O (1995). Nigerian Children's Literature in English. Ibadan: AENL Education Publishers, P. XI Fayose, P. O. (1995), School Library Resource Centers for Educational Excellence, Ibadan: AENL Educational Publishers, P.1. National Policy on Education, Revised Edition (1981), Lagos: Nigeria Educational Research Council Press, P. 432. United Nations, The Rights of the Child, (1979). CAN NIGERIAN LANGUAGES TRANSMIT MODERN TECHNOLOGICAL CULTURES Okeke Vincent O. Imo State University, Owerri SUMMARY It is the general belief by experts (Okonkwo: 2002;Kizerbo, 1966; Fishman: 1984, etc.…) that the mother tongue is the best medium for the child to acquire knowledge at school. The child is more at ease in understanding and tackling problems in the language he is used to than in the one that he hardly has a good grip of. It takes years for a Nigerian child, long after even he has finished his secondary education to have a mastery of the English language, so that one can logically conclude that all the knowledge dispensed in earlier years at school have simply been half understood. Now, to what extent can the option of using the mother tongue be viable in the acquisition of modern technological cultures? Can Nigerian languages be structurally adequate in dispensing higher knowledge in science and technology? Our paper agrees that they are all structurally capable to transmit these higher cultures but under certain conditions of rehabilitation and greater attention by stake holders. No language is superior to another from the linguistic point of view so that what one can do, others can equally do provided there is determination and hard work. INTRODUCTION History has it that Africa was at the forefront of the race for technological development and has contributed immensely to world technology. Egypt's contribution cannot be overlooked as she started the race before giving the baton to other participants. But following the slave trade and the subsequent European / Arab colonization that sapped Africa of its dynamism, traditional values were relegated to the background. Though, generally speaking, oralcy was primarily the traditional vehicle for African cultural and intellectual development, African peoples had their own technologies which eventually paved the way to the present scientific and technological cultures of the Western world and their modes of expression. Indigenous languages had in the past adequate provisions of vocabulary and grammar to express emotions, thoughts, points of view and ideas in Science and technology. But these technologies were smashed by colonial ruthlessness. The languages used to express them were made to stagnate for want of adequate sustenance, as a result of which some went into oblivion. European cultures set in, subjecting the traditional African ones to dormancy and neglect. These new technologies were adapted to the ideology and culture of Europe and the indigenous users were subjected to the cultural styles and ideological practices of their European producers. As a result, industries were constructed to produce economic results which tended to satisfy ideological objectives. By right, technology is supposed to solve problems, taking into account the people's environmental and social factors. Experience has however shown that some of these imported technologies do not solve our problems; they rather tend to destroy the socio-cultural and economic balance of recipient countries and even constitute serious dangers to the lives of the citizens. The Union Carbide disaster in India serves as a good example of this situation. Not only are Western technologies elitist in nature, the gap which they create between the developed and developing countries is now a matter of grave concern. The overwhelming superiority of imperial powers in their application forces us to a position of perpetual consumers and parasites. These are the present problems of the globalization process which the third world tends to snob. However, we cannot for that reason fold our arms and watch progress in modern trends elude us. We must have to participate. All we need to do is to be masters of own fates, to acquire technology once again (foreign or indigenous), operated by us to solve our problems of hunger, clothing, shelter and disease in order to: Reduce the alarming high rates or morbidity and mortality, improve life expectance, longevity and productivity of the African peoples. (Moyibi Amoda, 1958: p. 150) Though European languages are at present the medium of science and technological knowledge in most third world schools, there is a general feeling that these forms of knowledge could be more suitably assimilated if they were taught in maternal languages. In fact, many of the researches on education in developing countries suggest the use of vernacular languages for early primary science. We feel obliged, while we talk of technology, to talk equally of science because training in basic sciences as a prerequisite to the learning and development of technology, is an imperative approach to realistic technological growth. HAVE LANGUAGES PARTICULAR VOCATIONS? The generally accepted theory in language use in Medieval Europe was that Greek, Latin and Hebrew were the languages of culture whereas others were seen as languages of emotion and daily life. Greek was considered to be the noblest form of human speech, while Latin, by its precision and force became attractive in any setting and no where more appropriate than in the work of a scientist (Savory, 1967). It was even in the 19th century that languages like English and French were emancipated from the grips of these prestigious and classical tongues, though still a great quantity of specialized expressions reminiscent of their imperialism are still indelibly entrenched in them. Primitive societies were not even considered apt to possess languages. Their speeches were only made up of jargons and noises which would certainly not be considered fit to vehicle any serious thought. Thanks to anthropologists and linguists of this 20th century, these 'vituperations' of the primitive man have been found to be languages, just like those of the civilized man and these languages have been found to be structurally adequate to transmit all pre-occupations of their native users. Every language disposes of a finite set of rules which permit it to generate an infinite number of correct sentences (Chomsky, 1963). In this regard therefore, all languages are equal by their natural dispositions. There are however, a certain number of particularities that distinguish language groups from each other. Their preoccupations, social and physical environments are not the same and their tenets are expressed by quite different sets of lexicon. According to Whorf (1976), the world in which we live is seen from different focuses and these are determined by the languages we speak. In his doctrine of linguistic determinism, Whorf proposes that there are differences in cognition associated with the languages we speak. If we were to tow the lines of these arguments, we would give a 'NO' response to the question raised by our title. From the cultural point of view, the world is presently conceived from two (cultural) perspectives: the western scientific and the technological cultures which are now tending to be universal and other regional and group limited cultures. We live therefore in two worlds of different cultural values. Many countries of the third world never had a powerful secular literary tradition and only came in contact with writing through their colonial ties and through the same, came to experience another world view of science and technology. All while living at the same time in these two different worlds, the third world citizen is grappling with the relationship between language and certain aspects of cognition. He finds that his survival lies in his adopting in toto the cultural imperatives of his former colonial master, now that his own has been devalued. In this, western counterpart is, of course, far ahead being the originator of those values. The African in his predicament is bent on catching up. He wants to acquire the modern cultures of science and technology. Most of the tenets of this culture, as we have seen, are abstract to him, though he needs to know them in order to survive. They would perhaps be better understood if translated or transmitted in indigenous languages. Of course, yes. In the words of Hyder (1966), “By passively accepting English as the medium of intellectual activity, we are unwitting ly placing a barrier to the intellectual development of our peoples (…) being always incapacitated to undertake any serious thinking in our languages” Using the example of Igbo (out of other African languages) which was defective in serious creative writing, writing per se was not an African cultural activity, though it started in Africa, (specifically in Egypt). At the present moment, writings in our languages are limited to religious tracts, simple school textbooks, folktales and proverbs, though serious effort is underway to generate lots of creative works and literature. Summarizing our topic, our question can be thus re-framed “can Igbo language, language of oral tradition, possess large enough vocabulary to satisfy the degree of specificity required of a language of science and technology?” We would answer an outright “yes” because if our people are capable of assimilating a culture which is foreign to them, their language would equally be able to accommodate any degree of specificity required of it. In the words of Sapir (1968), “language is a complex inventory of all the ideas, interests and occupations that take up the attention of a community ”. Originally, most of the scientific and technological concepts now used in our community did not take up the attention of our people, but now, they constitute a way of life for most of our people, and they live by these experiences. The underdeveloped countries of the world had particular cultures to express, not necessarily the same as western countries. The important point is that, using the words of Fishman at al (1968) underdeveloped countries were not living in tabula rasa waiting virginally for western ideas to be inscribed. We had original cultures. The problem now is that emphasis has shifted from one area to another, so that if our culture had received universal acceptance as did those of some European countries, the reverse would have been the case and the Europeans would have been struggling to catch with our own languages for the acquisition of a culture which would equally have appeared too abstract for them. HAD AFRICANS ANY TECHNOLOGICAL PAST BEFORE THE ADVENT OF EUROPEAN TECHNOLOGY? Africans had their own traditional technologies and basic sciences which they applied in the building of bridges, houses, and agricultural based industries. They were advanced in pottery, sculpture, smithing and architectural technologies. They constructed their own agricultural tools. The indigenous languages disposed of all the necessary tools to express all these. The need did not arise to borrow any term for expressing any concept whatsoever. Instead they continued generating new vocabulary in the face of newer developments in these sciences. But alas, colonization and the attendant imposition of a completely new life perspective halted the onward advancement of our people in the direction of their science and technology. In the domain of medicine, a lot of advancement was already attained. We had Doctors specialized in gynecology and obstetrics, who performed successful surgeries and administered drugs, all of which had names. All the above mentioned surgical tools had names, most of which have gone into extinction from sheer neglect. If our people had mustered all the courage and violent disposition needed to go into colonial adventurism and then colonized the Western nations, thereby imposing our model of science and technology, Europeans would be looking up to us for innovations in those areas originated by us. Modes of administration would be different and in our own vocabularies. Thus, the inability of indigenous languages to transmit Western models of science and technology derives from this relegation of own values for a foreign visionary pattern. Briefly said, Africa made a solid contribution to world technology, as exemplified by the advanced technologies of Egypt. Besides, the architectural patterns in Africa testify to this uniqueness. STRUCTURAL DISPOSITIONS OF ENGLISH AND IGBO From the structural point of view, Igbo language is syntactically and phonetically adequate to transport any realities at all, including those that fall outside her realms of cultural influence, just like English [Okeke, 1989]. But when it comes to transmitting two different cultural realities, the shortfall derives only from the lexical cum semantic nature. Quite a number of languages have a large chunk of vocabulary for concepts which others express with fewer terms. The fact that Eskimos have far more terms to express the concept of snow than English (Sapir, 1967) does not make it superior; English can satisfactorily express snow to her speakers who would not be interested in the menu precision which an Eskimo would expect. In the words of Charles Hockett (1954), the difference between languages is not so much as to what can be said in them but rather as to what it is relatively easy to say. In other words, all those terms which we find in English, as our people learn the sciences, can equally be expressed in Igbo though with perhaps not as much ease as in English. That is why our major concern in research seminars, is that emphasis has very often been placed on finding terms which would translate concepts with greater ease and precision. We shall therefore delve into a comparative analysis of both languages especially as concerns the generation of new lexicon. We shall, by this medium discover why Igbo is finding it more difficult than English to cope with the ever-growing technical register. Is it a problem of intrinsic structural properties and to what extent can they be overcome? Every language has the means of generating terms for new concepts and experiences. Words can be borrowed from a foreign language and adapted phonemically into the system of the recipient language. They can equally be coined to meet the new needs; they can be borrowed from ordinary speech and be given a new semantic interpretation. A new concept can also be translated with paraphrases. These procedures vary with languages though some are more generally applied than others. In English, the radical has been the major source of lexical innovations for science and technological terms. With its derivational cum flexional attributes, the radical stands out to help generate other grammatical categories whose meanings the language user can easily sieve from basic forms. Thus, the use of prefixes and suffixes are primordial in generating new expressions in English. To illustrate this statement, seven other expressions can be generated from the word “origin”: Aborigine, original, aboriginal, originality, originate, originally, origination. Any competent speaker of English would have no difficulties understanding what they all mean, based on the meaning of the source term. This has the advantage of combining both logic and the economy of means. Also, 44 compounds are understood to have emerged from the sole term thermo-; 54 scientific terms from phono-, 57 from tele-. Even the verbs that serve to express these new concepts can be formed in English from substantives and other grammatical categories can thereupon be formed from the same. From the word, “oxygen”, one can get: oxide, oxidation, oxidize, oxidizer, oxidizable, oxygenate, whereas in Igbo, for example, each of these new expressions would require a separate paraphrase or at best a new word. The use of prefixes and suffixes is characteristic not only of English but also of other languages like French, Spanish, German which are presently used to vehicle technology. It constitutes a great advantage for the users of the languages vis-à-vis their Igbo counterparts who only sparingly can enjoy incidents of flexion in their language. This use of separable extension of the radical to modify meanings and generate fresh lexicon is not conducive in the logical development of Igbo. The speakers most often have to go through the description process of tortuous paraphrasing Igbo expresses most of her meanings in vague and general terms. The terms: water, fluid, liquid, wet, river, pool, humid, watery, swamp, rain, drizzle, mucous can all be expressed by the term “mmiri” or “mmiri-mmiri” (for adjectival forms). The tenets of science and technology demand precision and accuracy. Besides, naming a thing is not the same as describing it because more than one concept can have a similar description. The name for pen “mkpisi e ji ede ihe” can satisfy the same description for others like bic, pencil, marker, nib. Thus, until specificity is attained, the speaker of Igbo will continue to have a vague perception of facts and not until this time will the language be viable to express science and technology. We are not however saying that the language is incapable of expressing knowledge in these areas. Words are for the most part polyvalent in Igbo as can be illustrated by the examples that follow: Leader, Chief, Director, Commander, can all be translated by the word Onye-isi Foreman, Supervisor This does not mean that equivalent and more specific terms cannot be devised. On the realization that a name has the simple role of identifying, a fresh word does not need to be descriptive. After all, nothing in the word ulo (house) indicates its function of giving shelter. The disadvantage of always describing a concept is that where this concept is not culture based or is abstract, translation becomes somewhat difficult. Judging from the volume of such alien and foreign concepts that are more often abstract in the expression of science and technology, one has to admit that meta-language activities are seriously under challenge. The trend can only be reversed by a more tenacious and conscious approach. APPRAISING THE NIGERIAN LANGUAGES SO FAR As the people's horizon of experience widens, the need arises to formulate linguistic terms for new lexical needs. Whatever new experiences take the people's attention must have to be expressed in one way or the other, through a number of strategies - intra-language borrowing, loan blends, phrase derivation and a series of adaptations. The Igbo society is a limited society living only in the Eastern part of Nigeria. The environment which the Igbo language expresses does not go beyond the confines of South-Eastern Nigeria and its tropical environment. Taking this language as an example, we would not be comparing it with English which is spoken everywhere in Britain, America, Australia, Canada, all of which constitute different geographical, social and cultural environments. The particular experiences in these locations help foster the growth of English. A concept which is difficult for the English man from Britain to formulate may perhaps be easier for the American or Australian to evolve in the same language. As there is no desert, for example, in South Eastern Nigeria as well as in Britain, one would expect the expression of terms related to the desert to be equally difficult for the two peoples. But since this environment exists in the USA, the British speaker of English only needs to look up into his dictionary to discover an already made repertory. His Igbo counterpart would be racking his head, trying to generate the vast vocabulary that is associated with the desert and its features. Thus the richness of English today is the aggregate of the many sided efforts and innovations brought about by the culturally different speakers of the language. Appraising the situation so far, one would say that Igbo and other Nigerian languages have not yet got vast enough linguistic resources to express the new world view of science and technology. Not enough research has so far been done at providing adequate literature in that domain, notwithstanding the fact that some effort has been recorded in that regard. Quite a number of bodies charged with the promotion of indigenous languages (especially the three major languages) are relentless in efforts to generate technical terms, through sponsoring seminars and metalanguage workshops but the impact is not being sufficiently felt. This is because there is no science literature in indigenous languages, the constant reading of which would put the subject in constant touch with scientific thought. As a result, native speakers are obliged to think in English for new technical ideas and in local languages for ordinary day to day activities. Added to these is the fact that grossly inadequate publicity is given to new derivations in the language by language committees; also Government is very passive to the development of indigenous languages. Well-to-do / eminent Nigerians hardly endow a kobo for research in these languages ( Elugbe: 1990, p. 17). They hardly see any need for that and their prejudices hamper the growth of vernacular languages. The great interest shown by Americans as a whole to science is fostered by the steady availability of scientific literature of all kinds. Apart from the normal flow of “official and sponsored pamphlets, bulletins dealing with the problems of agriculture, forestry, nutrition and health and all the many manufacturing and commercial processes that have their foundation in pure science” ( Savory: 1967). The average American is thus in contact with the science of the day and its literature. The contrary is the case with the Nigerian in own indigenous language. In the face of the so many shortcomings of the vernacular languages, as exemplified by Igbo vis-à-vis the other languages which have been privileged by circumstances in the transmission of science and technological thought, quite a number of measures need to be taken. Otherwise, if the situation remains as it is actually, our languages will never be able to transmit higher technological cultures. CONCLUSION Judging from the half efforts already made to equip Igbo with the wherewithal to transmit science and technology, one would lose hope to say that vernacular languages are not viable to transmit higher cultures of science and technology. At present, there seems to be an unending igbonization of English expressions and if the rate of these processes of lexical acquisition were allowed to continue unchecked, Igbo and other Nigerian languages would lose their autonomy and quasi totally espouse the structure of English. Looking back at history, we discover that many language groups have already achieved these aspirations. The Japanese language, a few years ago, could not transmit these higher thoughts, especially in the domain of medicine. German served them as resource pool. For years, they borrowed from German and sat on the indigestible heap of foreign concepts, but gradually domesticated them by sheer commitment. (Herbert Passin). Nigerian languages have today a high number of undigested English vocabulary. Events in history may force us one day to fall back on these languages which we frustrate with reckless abandon. Finally, faced with the immediate necessity to transmit modern science and technology in them, Igbo and any language at all can transmit these higher cultures though the process has to be gradual with steady hard work. BIBLIOGRAPHY Chomsky, Noam (1965): Aspects of the theory of Syntax, Cambridge Mass, MIT Press. Elugbe, Ben O. (1990 “ National Languages and National Development” In Emenanjo, Multilinguism: Minority Languages and Language Policy in Nigeria, Central Books Ltd., Agbor Emenanjo E.N, (1990): Multilingualism: Minority Languages and Language Policy in Nigeria, Central Books Limited, Agbor. Fishman J. et l (1968): Language Problems of Developing Nations, John Viley & Sons Inc., New York Hyder Mohamed (1066): “ Swahili in the Technical Age” East African Journal, 11.9. Moyibi Amoda (1978): Festac Colloquium and Black World Development, 3rd Press Internl, New York Sapir Edward (1967): Anthropologie, Editions de Minuit, Vol. II Savory T. (1967): The Language of Science, André Deutsch Whorf B. L. (1976): Selected Writings, Language and Thought, by Carroli J. B., MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. EMPOWERING SCHOOL LIBRARIES FOR THE CHALLENGES OF THE UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION (UBE) PROGRAMME: A TREATISE. CHUMA O. NNADOZIE DEPARTMENT OF LIBRARY SCIENCE IMO STATE UNIVERSITY, OWERRI. ABSTRACT The paper highlighted previous efforts, especially the UPE Programme aimed at providing free and functional primary education by various governments in the country before the formulation and introduction of the UBE programme. A synopsis of the objectives and scope of the UBE programme was provided. The roles which the school library should play in the on-going UBE programme were identified and briefly discussed. Recommendations were made on ways to equip and position the school library for the discharge of the additional responsibilities which the introduction of the UBE programme has thrown up. Introduction Several scholars, among them Ejimofor (1987) and Fafunwa (1991) have pointed out that the educational system and infrastructure bequeathed to Nigeria by the colonial officials were tailored to the production of indigenous personnel needed to administer the colonial civil service. However, since the end of colonial rule, efforts have been made to create an educational system that will meet the developmental needs of independent Nigeria. This national aspiration has led to the articulation of policies and establishment of institutions with the aim of liberalizing access to basic education. The snag is that due, largely, to pervasive poverty, qualitative education remains outside the reach of an average Nigerian. Whereas the quality of education available at the public schools leaves much to be desired, the cost at reputable private schools within and outside the country remains prohibitive. As a result, only the affluent businessmen, technocrats and politicians can afford to give quality education to their children and wards. Of course, provision of qualitative education remains a social responsibility of government. And to be saddled with a mass of illiterate populace is a potential danger, which any government would keep at its own peril. The foregoing narrative partly explains the decision of the present Federal Government to introduce the Universal Basic Education (UBE) Programme. Highlights of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) Programme. Education remains a veritable instrument for intellectual liberation, social transformation and technological development. These positive multiplier effects of an enlightened citizenry have emboldened successive governments in Nigeria to design ambitious policies and programmes aimed at widening access to and enhancing the quality of education in the country. In all these the interest of the Nigerian child remains paramount, as children are the future leaders. A trip down memory lane would reveal that the dream of free and functional education for Nigerians is not a new phenomenon. In the late 1950's and early 1960's, the government of the defunct Western Region introduced the Universal Primary Education (UPE) which was the first project of providing free education in any part of the country. The military which took over the reins of government in the mid-1960's truncated the fledging UPE programme only to repackage and re-introduce it as a nationwide programme in the late 1970's. The lack of continuity in government policies led to the scrapping of the repackaged UPE programme during the Second Republic. When democratic government was inaugurated in Nigeria in 1999, the Federal Government pledged to revitalize education and make same qualitative, functional and affordable. In addition to other measures taken to revive the almost comatose education sector was the launching of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) Programme on the 30th September 1999 at the Shehu Kangiwa Square, Sokoto. The UBE Programme, in a nutshell, represents an effort by the Federal Government to arrest the downward slide in the standard of education, by making the education of the Nigerian child free at the primary and junior secondary school levels. The objectives of the UBE programme as enshrined in the Implementation Guidelines (2000:11) include: · Developing in the entire citizenry, a strong consciousness for education and a strong commitment to its vigorous promotion; · The provision of free, universal and basic education for every Nigerian child of school going age; · Reducing drastically, the incidence of drop-out from the formal school system; · Catering for the young persons who, for one reason or another have had to interrupt their schooling as well as other out-of-school children/ adolescents, through appropriate forms of complementary approaches to the provision and promotion of basic education; · Ensuring the acquisition of the appropriate levels of literary, numeracy, manipulative, communicative and life skills as well as the ethical, moral, and civic values needed for laying a solid foundation for lifelong learning. The Implementation Guidelines (2000) further show that the UBE Programme has a very wide area of coverage, encompassing: Ø Programmes/initiatives for early childhood care and education; Ø Education programmes for the acquisition of functional literacy and life skill, especially for adults (persons aged 15 and above); Ø Special programmes for nomadic population; Ø Outof-school non-formal programmes for up-dating the knowledge and skills of persons who left school before acquiring the basics needed for lifelong learning; Ø Nonformal skills and apprenticeship training for adolescents and youths who have not had the benefit of formal education; Ø The formal school system from the beginning of primary education to the end of junior secondary school. The UBE programme will provide for the educational needs of the following groups of beneficiaries: q Pre- primary age children; q Primary age children; q Junior secondary school students q Adults and outof school adolescents in mass literary, adult and non- formal education q Nomads. The Federal Government is taking steps to ensure that the UBE programme does not suffer the fate of the earlier Universal Primary Education (UPE) Programme which was characterized by inadequacy of funds, facilities, personnel and haphazard implementation. Already, about N250 million has been set aside for the provision of books for the training of teachers, administrative staff and other resource persons. Government anticipated an upsurge in school enrolment to the tune of about 1,120,000 new pupils in the first year of the programme. And in order to meet the stipulations of 40 pupils to one classroom, government is currently building about 28,000 classrooms throughout the country. Because of the additional number of teachers required in the UBE programme, arrangement has been concluded with the National Teachers' Institute for the training of about 40, 000 in the first year of the scheme through the Pivotal Teachers' Training Programme (PTTP). A closer look at the raison d'etre of the UBE programme reveals that it re-echoes the ideas of functional, learner-centred, skill oriented, self-guided, resources-based education which have been beautifully encapsulated in the various National Policies on Education (1977 and 1981) which has, in the words of Dike (1993) “brought the school library from periphery to the centre of education.” The foregoing highlights on the UBE programme provide fertile grounds for further reflection and introspection. For instance, what are the available facilities for the effective implementation of the UBE programme? Is there any role for the school library in the programme? How can we equip, and so empower, the school library to make it central to, and relevant in the UBE programme? Role of the School Library in the UBE Programme. School libraries are founded to support academic activities at the kindergarten primary and secondary levels of education. This claim finds buttress in the words of Kolade (2001:34) : The school library media centre is the intellectual development unit within the school system that provides an organized collection of books and non-book media specially collected to support the teaching and educational work of the school from early childhood, to primary junior and senior secondary levels. The school library, therefore, nurtures the preliminary stages in the scholastic life of the child. As educational policies and programmes have changed so have the content and designation of the school library. The changing role of the school library has attracted to it diverse nomenclatures all of which are used interchangeably, viz: learning resource centre (LRC), school media resource centre (SMRC), educational resource centre (ERC), media resource centre (MRC). Learning Laboratory (LL). The ideal school library should have the full complement of decent accommodation and competent staff. Omolayole (2001:18) mentioned other resources including books, magazines, recordings, maps, films, photographs, paintings, computer terminals, cameras, projectors and tape recorders for school projects. This is why the school library is among the educational infrastructure; which the Implementation Guidelines for the UBE Programme (2000) refers to as “the physical and spacial enablers of teaching and learning”. Other roles of the school library in the UBE Programme include the following: Providing conducive environment for study and research: Most Nigerian homes are not conducive for the pursuit of scholarship. The alternative to the pupil/student is to avail himself of the facilities of the school library; whose primary function is “to provide an environment which will encourage and support teaching and learning within its spaces”. (Woolls, 1988: 42). The school library, therefore, lends itself to the pupil/student and teachers alike. It affords the student the chance for self and guided study while materials for further research and the preparation of lessons are brought to the reach of the teachers in an organized and conducive environment. This helps to enhance the standard of education. Acquiring information materials: Because of the cash-crunch occasioned by economic hardship in the country, the possession of books and other learning media have become a luxury which most pupils/students cannot afford. Since the availability of books has a leading role to play in the success of the UBE programme, the school library, therefore, acquires books and other information materials and thereby relieves Nigerian parents, guardians and teachers of the costly responsibility of purchasing books and other educational media required for study and research. Inculcating reading habits: About a decade ago, Krashen (1993) developed the premise that “we learn to read by reading” Udofia (2001:84) describes reading as “the spring-board on which learning takes off”. As a result of early exposure to library and books, through the instrumentality of the school library, children acquire the habit of reading which helps to sustain lifelong education which is one of the aims of the UBE programme. Re-inforcing information literacy: Amucheazi (1998) described information literacy as “a set of skills and strategies which include the ability to recognize a need for information, to retrieve the required information and to evaluate and utilize it effectively to solve a particular problem”. The relevance of the school library to the sustenance of information literacy and implementation of the UBE Programme becomes evident when we remember that the school library provides children opportunities to hear stories, meet friends and borrow books for leisurely reading and assignments. The school library therefore assists the child to develop an enquiring mind and lifelong habits that will stand him in good stead to put knowledge to good use. Teaching the use of library skills: The school library may be the child first encounter with a library of any sort. As a result, most children exhibit traces of ignorance of how best to put the library to good use. The school library comes to the aid of such children by organizing periodic use education programmes. These programmes take the forms of instructions in the use of catalogue; classification schemes; information materials; library rules and regulations; or guided tours of nearby public libraries. All these help children to appreciate the library and become better citizens in their adult life. Arranging inter-library co-operation: Inter-library loans, and exchange of materials are under the aegis of library co-operation. Co-operation among libraries arises because no library, no matter how well-endowed, has all the materials required by its clients. In realization of this fact, school libraries design, implement and co-ordinate collaborative arrangements thereby making their respective information resources available to participants in the UBE programme Equipping The School Library For The U.B.E Programme The role of the school library in the proper education of the child is not in doubt as can be inferred from the brief discussion above. W hat is doubtful is the availability of relevant facilities and resources and the preparedness of the school library to discharge its responsibilities satisfactorily. This section contains suggestions on how to position, equip and empower the school library for the challenges, which the introduction of the U.B.E programme presents: Adequate funding: The success of any worthwhile venture is inextricably tied to availability of funds. The school library should be adequately funded for it to make the desired impact on the implementation of the lofty ideals encapsulated in the U.B.E programme. Money is needed to develop or reconstruct accommodation for the school library; procure facilities and resources; and employ personnel for efficient running of these libraries. In addition to donations, bequeaths and government grants to school libraries, the possibility of charging some money for library development can also be explored in order to increase the money available for the running of the school libraries Provision of facilities; For the school library to contribute meaningfully to the success of the U.B.E programme, it must have the basic facilities and resources: There must be a the functional school library building complete with ceiling fans, air-conditioners, shelves, lighting and furniture. The regulatory authorities should consider enacting a legislation making school libraries mandatory components of the master-plans of primary and secondary schools. Deliberate efforts should be made to develop a collection of books to support education at the primary and secondary levels. Obanya's (2001:3) reminder that “the exigencies of the 21st Century requires that school libraries handle a lot more than print materials. School library with designation as teacher-librarians. Holders of OND or NCE (Library Science option) should be employed to man primary school libraries while those with HND or B.Ed (Library Science option) should preside over secondary school libraries. Obviously, the teacher- librarian cannot run the School Library alone. Thus, Kolade (1998) has recommended and designed job specification for the following personnel needed for effective running of the school library: Library assistant, technician/audio-visual specialist, student helper, adult helpers, school library committee, typist, cleaners, and security staff. Creation of a mobile (outreach) arm of the school library: The UBE Programme is not limited to the formal school system. Infact, the Implementation Guidelines (2000) spelt out that the programme covers, among other things, “education programmes for the acquisition of functional literacy and life skills especially for adults,… and specific programmes for normadic population.” This means that the project of extending functional literacy, which the UBE programme aims at, would continue even at the residences and work-stations of the target beneficiaries. Extending library services, no matter how skeletal, to these far-flung theaters of academic activities therefore becomes inevitable. It is in this scenario that mobile library service should makes its entry in the UBE programme. School libraries should brace up for the provision of mobile library and extension services whereby vans/vehicles would be used to take books and other relevant information materials to the remote study centres. Really, establishment of mobile library as an appendage of the school library will make library services available to all facets of the UBE programme. Networking: Since no school library can have all the information materials required for the discharge of its statutory responsibilities, the school library administrators should explore the possibility of networking with neighbouring libraries for the exchange of available information materials and acceptance of genuine referral letters. Also, donor agencies and trans-national organizations like the World Bank, European Union, UNESCO, UNICEF, USIS, British Council et al, could be approached for assistance. Credible local NGOs could also be contacted for possibleassistance. Modalities should be worked out with the Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) for the production of relevant educational resources which the school library is expected to procure and provide in support of the UBE programme. Generally, networking will help improve the finances and resources available at school libraries. Implementation of existing standards for school libraries in Nigeria: Bright policies for the development of school libraries are not in short supply in Nigeria. For instance, the Guidelines for Legislation on School Libraries (1978) National Policy on Education (1981). Minimum Standards for School Libraries in Nigeria (1992), among others, were articulated to aid the development of school libraries in Nigeria. What is lacking is the will-power and resources to implement these laudable programmes. The authorities should establish workable machinery for the implementation of the existing policies for schools library development in order to place the school library in a vantage position for a central role in the UBE programme. Conclusion The efforts to liberalize educational opportunities in the country without sacrificing standards has led to the formulation of various educational policies. One of such programmes is the UBE programme which aims at providing free and functional education to Nigerians from primary to the end of junior secondary school. As a result, the provision of school libraries to support the on-going UBE programme becomes not merely desirable but necessary. This is because of the various services, which the school library renders especially in this 21st century where emphasis has shifted to resource-based and learner-centred education. But the reality is that school libraries in the country are in a sorry state which makes it impossible for them to play their expected leading role in the implementation of the on-going UBE programme. This paper, therefore, explored quite a number of salient issues and made reasoned contributions to the search for ways of empowering the school library for the challenges of the UBE programme. References Dike, Virginia W. (1993 ) . Library Resources in Education. Enugu : ABIC . Ejimofor. C.O. (1987 ) . British Colonial Objective and Policies in Nigeria. Onitsha: Africana FEP. Publishers. Fafunwa, B. A. (1991). History of Education in Nigeria. Ibadan : NPS. Educational Publishers. Kolade, H. K. (1998) . “Personnel Requirement for Nigerian School Library Media Center “. In : Elaturoti, D. F. Nigerian School Librarianship : Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow, Ibadan: NSLA 189- 200 pp. Kolade, H. K. (2001 ). “Universal Basic Education Programme in Nigeria : Implication for the Teaching Role of the School Library”. Nigerian School Library Journal . 4 (1&2): 33-38. pp. Krashen: S. (1993). The Power of Reading: Insight from Research. Eaglewood, Colorado ries Unlimited. Nigeria (1981). National Policy on Education. Revised Edition. Lagos: NERC Press. Nigeria (1992) Minimum Standard for School Libraries in Nigeria. Lagos: Federal Ministry of Education Nigeria (2000). Implementation Guidelines for the Universal Basic Education (U.B.E) Programme. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Education. Obanya, Pai (2001) “Library Development for UBE”; Nigerian School Library Journal 4(122):1-4 pp. Omolayole, O.O. (2001). “The Role of the National Library in the Provision of Effective Library Services in Support of the U.B.E. Programme in Nigeria”. Nigeria school library Journal. 4(1&2);15-22pp Udofia, E.P. (2001) “The Modern Library and the Universal Basic Education Implementation”. Nigerian School Library Journal .4(1& 2); 78-87pp Woolls, Blanche.(1988) Managing School Library Media Programmes .Eaglewood, Colorado: Libraries Unlimited
MORE NEWS ARTICLES THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN THE SUCCESS OF THE UBE SCHEME IN NIGERIA Rev. Fr. John. I. Obilor PhD Imo State University, Owerri ABSTRACT Religion is at the heart of every human development. The understanding of religion in our context must include both the implicit and explicit notions of religion. This implies both the natural dimension of religion and the acquired dimension. This paper concerns itself more with the natural dimension of religion which is that aspect of religion which represents the essential attribute of mankind as Homo Religiosus. It is noted in the paper that the problems associated with religion in Nigeria are caused by the exaggerated emphasis on the explicit dimension of religion which represents the religious institutions, their teachings and modus operandi. The paper argues that for a successful implementation of the UBE in Nigeria, there is the need to eschew emphasis on this explicit dimension of religion, while promoting the implicit dimension. There are five main areas of concern in the execution of any scheme like the UBE. (a) The political will on the part of government. (b) The financial resources available for the scheme. (c) A good plan of action. (d) A conscientious implementation personnel. (e) The enabling environment which includes peace and stability in the country. Each and every one of these five areas of concern need the input of religion. INTRODUCTION Religion needs the UBE scheme and the UBE scheme needs religion. Religion remains the bedrock of every human development. As Obilor (1999:115) opines : The greatest duty of religion is to create harmony among various forces and activities. The UBE programme is a good opportunity to expose pupils and teachers to the correct ideals of religion and of religions. The success of the UBE Scheme begins with the caliber of teachers trained for the job. Teacher education is the most important aspect of the UBE scheme. Nothing can replace the value of a well trained teacher. In our context, teachers for the UBE must be educated and instructed about religious matters in Nigeria. They must be well trained on the principles of Dialogue, Ecumenism and Inculturation. The last one (Inculturation) is relatively a new terminology in the academic circle. The term Inculturation means the “on-going dialogue between faith and culture”. According to Obilor (2001:41) In our context however, we define Inculturation as the on-going dialogue between faith and culture with the view to create an integral human personality who will be at home both in his or her faith and his or her culture in another context Obilor (2002:46) says that Proper Inculturation occurs when man is alive in his culture and in his Christian faith. The three areas (Dialogue, Ecumenism and Inculturation) cover the vital issues involved in the intra and extra religious conflicts in Nigeria. Nigeria needs a detailed and systematic lessons on and about religion as a multi-cultural and multi-religious society. This will involve a special curriculum designed to help pupils to cope with the effects of religious differences. The focus of such a curriculum will be the implicit dimension of religion as against the explicit dimension of religion. This would enhance the mutual co-existence of the religions and their adherents. Most of the problems associated with religion in Nigeria stem from three factors: a) Ignorance of the teaching of the existing religions in Nigeria. b) The activities of leaders of religion as against religious leaders. And c) a wide spread ignorance of the true worship of God. In other words, ignorance and manipulation of religion by the elite play many vital roles in the religious conflicts in Nigeria. It is therefore necessary to explain the various meanings which modern study has evolved about the term religion. Towards the Understanding of the word Religion There is always a debate about the meaning of the word "Religion". The problem has become acute in our time with the growth of many small sects, cults, and movements, all seeking the title "religion". Over the centuries, the word has been defined philosophically, anthropologically, psychologically, sociologically, phenomenologically, culturally, theologically and even spiritually. The philosophical approach tends to an abstract identification of the pure essence of the word religion as such. A purely phenomenological approach tends to search for certain visible characteristics common to each of the world major religions. A narrow theological approach tends to isolate one religion as the only viable option. A mere psychological approach may end up defining religion from the point of view of the feeling of absolute dependence; the experience of the "holy". A negative aspect of this will lead to an understanding of religion as that which happens or comes into existence at the very point where human beings can no longer bear their sense of dependence, their anxieties, their wishes, or even their poverty. Still some define religion from a functional perspective. Here religion is located at the intersection of sociology and culture. This means that the role of religion is seen and appraised through its response to and in meeting with the social needs and how it shapes culture. What one can rightly say is that any meaningful definition would incorporate elements from all the approaches rather than from only one or two. Whether such a definition is possible and whether that will resolve the problem of a definition for religion remains to be seen. THE IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT DIMENSIONS OF RELIGION. This is a new and an alternative approach to the understanding of the term religion and the whole religious questions. It seeks to elevate the religious dimension of man to a status of religion. In this understanding human religiosity becomes the primordial religion which gave birth to other religions. It is also called the fundamental religion. It is the root of the inalienable rights to religious freedom. This is therefore an important approach which can help to explain the term religion and thus bring out some of it's beauty and goodness. This can be called a pedagogical-perspective approach. One often hears people say: Uka di n' obi (religion is private). One also hears people talk about private religion or personal religion. This new approach views religion from two aspects: a) explicit religion and b) implicit religion. Explicit religion is that aspect of religion which comes from outside - learned or taught - revelation, belief system, holy books and persons, which often are based on authority. Every religion that has a founder such as Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, etc., belongs to this class. It has often been argued that African Traditional Religion does not belong to the Explicit religion. The reason often advanced is that it has no understood founder. However it can qualify as an Explicit religion because it is learned and taught from one generation to another. The question remains open for the very fact that the foundation of a religion by a person is not the only criterion for explicit religion. Implicit religion is man's natural search for the beyond - a humanly driven drive - this comes from within and is not imposed from outside. The truth of the matter is that man has a religion because he is religious. It is true that man has a religion because he has the quality or attribute called religious which in our case is called the primordial religion. All religious institutions and structures are products of man's religiosity. The religious man need not have an explicit religion but he must have the implicit religion. The sacred Scripture teaches that man was created "to the image of God," as able to know and love his creator, and as set by him over all earthly creatures (Gen 1:26; Wis 2:23) that he might rule them, and make use of them, while glorifying God (Eccl 17:3-10). Psalm 8:5-8 sings the praise of man as the epitome of creation. When the term homo religiosus is used as a necessary quality of man, that means the term `religious' is understood as an adjective qualifying the other term `man'. This may be the reason why most scholars agree that the term `religious' is attributable to man as a necessary dimension of being. There is no known professed atheist who negates equally the religious dimension of man. That dimension which leads a person beyond the self and arouses a mysterious but real transcendental appeal. The difference is the way in which the term `religious' is understood or interpreted by a theist and an atheist. We take the term `religious' in this context as a capacity or a power which enables man to observe the law of his nature, the natural law and/or of the divine law. Put another way: it is a composite of all those feelings of duties towards the transcendent which human reason can discover or be directed by its own power and apart from supernatural revelation. Saint Paul puts it better when he says: Ever since God created the world his everlasting power and deity - however invisible - have been there for the mind to see in the things he has made (Rom 1:20). This can be explained because as Boyle (1970:704) says; there are non-conventional, non-arbitrary moral standards which make possible genuine moral self-criticism, and so true moral knowledge even for those who have not received the moral instruction of divine revelation. This is also the same condition which made Thomas Aquinas to interpret the natural law as "nothing else than the rational creature's participation of the eternal law." (Summa theologica I-II q.91 a.2). We can then see the term `religious' as that potentiality of participation in the ways of the divine. We can also take another Pauline affirmation on the Gentiles who have neither known the law of God nor His Son: When Gentiles who have not the law do by nature what the law requires, they are a law to themselves, even though they do not have the law. They show that what the law requires is written on their hearts (Rom 2:14-15). There are no excuses for the individual. Man has the divine planted within him. He can reach out from it to others and for the public good. There is no individual, group, sect, or profession which holds the monopoly of the divinity. The term religion is derived from the Latin noun religio. The beauty of this latin word is that it is most closely allied to other three verbs: religere which means "to turn to constantly" or "to observe conscientiously"; religari which means "to bind oneself (back)"; and reeligere meaning "to choose again". A closer scrutiny shows that the three verbs point to three possible religious attitudes and thus a purely etymological probe can tell us much about religion and can also help to resolve most of the difficulties often associated with religion. For instance one cannot but be religious and this points to the implicit dimension of religion. One can make choices about his religion and is expected to observe conscientiously the belief and practice of his or her given religion and this points to the explicit dimension of religion. From the etymological analysis of the term religion, one can explore both the implicit and the explicit dimensions of religion. RELIGION AND THE UBE SCHEME The teaching of religion must form an integral part of the UBE curriculum. Two aspects must form the focus of the curriculum: a) Such a curriculum should approach the idea of religion from the new conception which distinguishes between implicit religion from the explicit religion. b) Such a curriculum must distinguish between “a religious leader” and “a leader of religion” in the Nigerian context. We shall take them one after the other. UBE CURRICULUM AND IMPLICIT RELIGION UBE Scheme must enhance the mutual co-existence of all Nigerians. As a national program it should possess the correct religious outlook. A special curriculum on religious studies, instruction and education becomes imperative. Religion has become a major factor of division and conflict in Nigeria. The core of the problem is the emphasis on the explicit religion as against the implicit religion. By this we mean, emphasis on institutional and structural religion, the uniqueness of the religion, the doctrines and beliefs of the religion, the way of life of the religion, the private practices of the religion, the laws of the religion, the aims and objectives of the religion, the future hopes and afterlife aspirations of the religion etc., etc. The explicit religion asks divisive questions like: Which religion is the best?, which religion was the first?, which religion can best lead us to God? Which book of religion is inspired? Who are the leaders of the religion?, what is the place of rituals in the religion? who is the greatest prophet of God?, where should we go and worship and when? etc., The Implicit religion on the contrary belongs to that which unites us as human beings. It defines mankind in its ontological nature and points to factors of natural law and natural justice. It does not seek to make God a private property, it is opened towards the transcendence as a point of arrival and often also understood as the point of departure. It asks such questions as: Are we all children of God?, Is God our father?, Do we share the same human nature?, Do we share the same human life?, Are we all destined to return to God after this abode in the flesh?, Are we all religious by nature?, Can we all worship God as Father?, Are we all created in the image of God?, Are we created in freedom?, Are we free to worship God in our own way?, What is the implication of our freedom? Does our freedom presuppose responsibility? Are we going to be judged by God on the Last Day?, Will the judgment be the same for every person? Will there be sacred cows before God?, What is the reason for religion? What is the value of religion?, etc., What are the essential features of a religion?. These and others should constitute the questions seeking answers in a UBE curriculum for Nigeria. UBE CURRICULUM AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Few people will question the assertion that religious education is vital for the survival of any society. For this reason it should be emphasized in the national policy on education. It is inevitable that a new generation of young people in Nigeria, better educated in a technical or technological sense, literate, fairly sophisticated and somewhat spoiled by an unprecedented affluence, should be disturbed, agitated and endangered by religious crises. The cause is simple, they face an uncertain future and have at least, little or no moral and spiritual patrimony handed down from their immediate ancestors. This unfortunate situation appears to be a global problem. Writing in the context of Europe and America, Bergin (1973:62) says: Bewildered, they have become the prey of slick demagogues, unscrupulous agitators, hypocritical politicians. Frenzied dictators and political pied pipers have shouted attractive slogans and ideologies at them, only to lead them into the ditch to which the blind invariably lead the blind. Any policy maker for Nigeria must consider our ungodly environment as an important factor in our national crisis. Most Nigerians belong to one religion or another. When people begin to apply the true precepts of their religion, the society will change for good. For Obilor (2001:104) The real problem is the erosion of religious instruction in schools. Religion now plays a secondary role and often an unfortunate divisive role in our national politic. This must change if our society must survive. In 1987, the Imo State Government reiterated her determination to encourage religious instruction in schools. Part of the subsisting law as provided for in the Public Education Edict, 1970, also known as Edict No. 2 of 1971, section 4, sub-sections 7 and 8 reads: Subject to the provisions of this Edict and the regulations made thereunder, there shall be set aside on every Thursday which is a school day a period for religious instruction by any religious groups, of all children who volunteer to attend or whose parents express no objection to their attending such religious instructions. This provision makes it clear that government is aware of the importance of religious education of all pupils in schools. Those responsible for the UBE scheme in Nigeria must also emphasize the role of religion in the success of the programme and for national unity. UBE CURRICULUM AND RELIGIOUS LEADERS The UBE Curriculum should emphasize the ideals of a “Religious Leader” as against a “Leader of Religion”. In Nigeria one can distinguish between a religious leader and a leader of religion. Our experiences in the past five years can help us to understand the fact that in Nigeria we have many leaders of religion and few religious leaders. Religious leaders are those who act from their true religiosity while leaders of religion are those who use religion to achieve their hidden objectives. In other words, a leader of religion is always "speaking" on behalf of his religion, always "defending" his religion, always "talking" about his religion, always "working" for his religion and always "propagating" his religion but the religious leader is always "practicing" the tenets of his religion, always "doing" what his religion teaches, always "avoiding" whatever would undermine the credibility of his religion, always "enhancing" the religious dignity of his religion and always "teaching" the true tenets of his religion. We are aware that in Nigeria most of our political leaders have turned the State Houses into churches, mosques and chapels. It is also worrisome to note that most of our religious leaders have turned their religion into political institutions. It is becoming impossible to separate the explicit religion from secular domain. Religion in Nigeria has become a tool for political ascendancy. Until our leaders be they political or religious, begin to respond positively to the religious dimension inherent in human nature of every human being and not as beasts, there will be no end to religious violence and religious intolerance in Nigeria. As Obilor (2002:66) says: It is commendable to see chapels and mosques in Government Houses in Nigeria. It is even more commendable to see some politicians preach Christianity or Islam in Nigeria. What we have not seen very often is the translation of what is preached into action. Are they true religious men and women or are they leaders of religion? From their fruit one can know them. The UBE curriculum must educate students about the ideals of a true religious leader such that one can follow what the leader preaches. Those who are leaders of religion as we discussed above must never be obeyed for they are wolves in sheep clothing. A situation in which the Governor of a State is at the same time the leader of religion must be condemned. Religious leaders must be allowed to perform their duty in according with the ethics of religion. THE BENEFITS OF A GOOD CURRICULUM FOR RELIGION Nigeria has witnessed a lot of religious crises in our time. There have been attempts in the past to develop a national religious curriculum but each time the various religions and denominations demand unique treatment of their beliefs and practices. The attempted curricula seek to respect the explicit religion as against the implicit religion. Questions asked and answered are often to satisfy the demands of the explicit religion. The UBE scheme is the opportunity to fashion something new. As we insisted in the introduction, the whole new approach must begin with Teacher Education. The UBE is impossible in an atmosphere of religious crises. Religious intolerance gives birth to religious crisis. This will eventually erode the benefits of the UBE. Religion plays an indispensable role in education. After all what is education except as Obilor (1999:108) says: to produce men and women with a deep, keen and lofty sense of dedication to the service of the commonwealth, the immediate community of which they are members, and thereby, to the service of the world as a whole. However, a good mathematician who lacks moral values falls short of an educated person. The intellectual who lacks the basic moral and religious values is like a man without a soul. Parents who desire to have a lawyer in the family equally desire a cultured and morally good lawyer. Religious values are the essential elements of education and thus should be taken seriously by the curriculum of the UBE. CONCLUSION The success of the UBE scheme must begin with a good articulated curriculum for Teacher Education. A well designed section on Interreligious dialogue and Inculturation must form part of Teacher Education. This should be followed by a good UBE Curriculum with a well articulated section on Interreligious dialogue and Inculturation tailored to suit the pupils and students. Nigeria cannot ignore the vital role which religion plays in our body polity. There must be a fervent political will to deal with religious issues in Nigeria. Every national programme must take the fact of religion into consideration. It would be unpatriotic to be silent on such issues. REFERENCES: Bergin, R. (1973) This Apocalyptic Age, Fatima International, Richmond, U.S.A. Boyle J. (Eng. tr. 1964-1970) "Natural Law" in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, (10 vols.) Kittel, G., & Friedrich, G. Eds. Obilor, I.J., (1988) The Problem of Language in Religious Education, Peter Lang, New York, Frankfurt am Main. Obilor, I.J., (1999) "Religion as the Bedrock of a University" Journal of the Humanities, vol. 1, no. 1, Imo State University, Owerri. Obilor, I.J., (2001) "The Place of Mother Tongue in the Teaching and Learning of Religion in Schools" Journal of Nigerian Languages and Culture (JONLAC) , vol. 2, October 2001, Imo State University, Owerri. Obilor, I.J., and Chinedu C Chukuegu (2001) “The Practice of Inculturation as the Matrix of Faith Culture conflict Resolution in Igboland” Journal of Religion and Culture, vol. 2, no. 2., University of Port Harcourt. Obilor, I.J., (2002) "Religion As the Bedrock of any Democracy: The Key Nigerian Survival" Journal of Nigerian Languages and Culture (JONLAC) vol. 3, July 2002, Imo State University, Owerri. Obilor, I,J., (2002) “Inculturation: Another Missiological Terminology Or a true Ecclesial Copernican Revolution” Journal of the Humanities, vol.1, no. 5., Imo State University Owerri. East Central State Government, “Public Education Edict 1970” Ministry of Education, Owerri. ASPIRATION IN IGBO: ARTICULATORY AND ACOUSTIC SPECIFICATIONS DR. U. K. EKE DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTICS UNIVERSITY OF JOS, NIGERIA ABSTRACT Contrary to data available on descriptions of other languages, namely; NIHALANI (1975) on Sindhi, Ohala (1972), Benguerel and Bhatia (1980) on Hindi, and particular Ladefoged (1976) on Owerri dialect of Igbo, aspiration in the Ohafia dialect of Igbo is synonymous with nasalisation. This observation which is based on our auditive impression of aspirated production in this dialect, motivated the need to specify the acoustic and articulatory characteristics of aspirated data obtained therefrom. The primary objectives of this study therefore, are to furnish the articulatory and acoustic traits and other features of aspiration, thus providing groungs for a better interpretation and systematisation of this phenomenon, as well as a better comprehension of the nature of such productions which have scarely been given adequate attention in this language. Data for this study was constituted from realisations of oppositions in minimal pairs which differ perceptively by aspiration. We have only retained opposition in the intervocalic position where information abounds on the consonant. Our choice of items is limited to the type VCV, where C is a stop consonant, having on both sides the retracted vowels /i/ and /u/ with high and down-step tones respectively. This study has created an enabling environment for the replacement, within the system, of aspirated series of consonants by a single aspirated nasal /h/, which, according to our findings, ought to be responsible for nasalising the contiguous post-aspiration vowel in an utterance. Although this simplification has further complicated the phonology of this dialect by its seeming un-naturalness, it has, all the same, enabled a better understanding of the aspiration - nasalisation phenomenon which markedly distinguishes this from many other Igbo dialects. Apart from this, it raises further questions about the (syllabic) structure of Igbo generally, which, before now, has been assumed to exclude a - CC - sequence. INTRODUCTION Igbo is spoken by over 20 million people in Nigeria. Although aspiration is not a feature of the standardised Igbo,1 it plays a significant role in the phonology of a good number of Igbo dialects. Ohafia, on which this paper is focused, is one of such dialects. Whereas in this dialect, aspiration is always accompanied by post consonantal nasalisation or vis versa, the two phenomena have been apprehended differently in other dialects. For instance, Dunstan and Igwe (1966) and Ladefoged (1972) observed that in Ohuhu dialect, aspiration occurs without nasalisation of the vowel. Ladefoged et. al. (1976) also noted aspiration and sometimes nasalisation in Mbaise dialect. In the same manner, Ladefoged (1976) observed the occurence of nasalisation without aspiration in Ika Igbo. However, Ohafia dialect resembles certain other Igbo dialects by the co-occurence of aspiration and nasalisation - Oluikpe (1976) for Ngwa, Armstrong (1967) for Orlu and Uzochukwu (1975) for Owerri dialects. As significant as this phenomenon may be in the phonology of Igbo language, it has not yet attracted much attention of Igbo linguists recently. Consequently, this study sees the need to specify the acoustic and articulatory characteristics of aspiration, using data available on descriptions of other languages where it has also been observed OBJECTIVE In view of the above, this paper proposes to examine the aspiration phenomenon in Ohafia Igbo with the aim of determining the articulatory and acoustic nature of the aspirated segment. This study is necessitated by the fact that from the perceptive point of view, all aspirated segments, involving voiced as well as voiceless consonants, seem to be followed by a nasalised vowel segment. This observation contradicts all expectations since voicing is naturally a prerequisite for nasalisation. PROCEDURE For this study, neither an exploration of glottal configuration using fiberoptic devices nor the detection of the motricity of the largnx by means of electromyographic signals was done. To this end, we could only refer to studies already done on comparable articulations in respect of Hindi language - Benguerel and Bhatia (1980) with regard to laryngeal timing, Hirose et. al. (1972), Hirose (1977), Kagaya (1975) and Dixit (1975) on the role of laryngeal muscles. On the one hand, our observations are based on means actually available for empirical acoustic analysis, viz: oscillogrammes, sonagrammes, spectral sections and fundamental frequency (F0). On the other hand, in respect of the aerodynamics (oral pressure and air flow) - Ladefoged et al. (1976), it was only possible to carry out qualitative observations of our consonants, using kymogrammes. Graphics for this study were produced following the procedure carefully outlined in Eke (1989 and 1990), with slight modifications. First, instead of an interrogative, a declarative was used as the carrier sentence from where the second to the last word was extracted and retained for the experiment. Secondly, two informants, a male and a female aged 24 and 21 years respectively, were used. Both informants, students of the University of Jos and speakers of Ohafia dialect, have never had any pathological problems with the vocal organ. Each of them listened to his/her recordings which he/she identified at 100%. Thirdly, the recordings were done in a sound proof room at the University of Jos language laboratory, using a Superscope Cassette Recorder CD30, and a TDK Canion XM60 cassette. The cassette was recorded once more at the Institute of Phonetics, Grenoble in France using the procedure outlined in Eke (op. cit.). The graphics/tracings showed no difference in comparison with those used in our earlier experiments. This approach was necessary to verify the authenticity of our earlier experience in which only one informant was used. DATA Data for this study consist of four words extracted from a declarative carrier utterance of the type/ gàà .../ “He/she went to ...” from where the forms below were retained: i'tu - “to throw” i'du - “to wear (e.g. clothes)” i'thu - “to sort” i'dhu - “to sew” In addition to these, a fifth item /i'nú/ “to hear”, containing the alveolar nasal consonant /n/, was also used for comparative purposes. OBSERVATION AND DISCUSSION ARTICULATORY DESCRIPTION A close examination of the buccal and nasal pressures, synchronised with the laryngeal microphone signal (placed on the left side of the informant's neck), reveals that: (a) For the voiceless unaspirated item /i'tú/ “to throw”, after a voiceless closure, the buccal pressure mounts brutally at the same time with the commencement of laryngeal voicing (see Fig. 1). For this synchrony, see commentary in acoustic description (infra). (b) For the voiced unaspirated item /i'dú/ “to wear ...”, the consonantal closure is entirely voiced and the establishment of the buccal pressure is also relatively rapid (Fig. 2). © For the voiceless aspirated item /i'thú/ “to sort”, the consonantal closure is indeed not voiced. The establishment of the buccal pressure is very rapid and voicing only recommences about 34 ms latter (Fig. 3). It is at this precise moment that nasality starts. (d) For the voiced aspirated item /i'dhú/ “to sew”, the closure is entirely voiced and the buccal pressure builds up relatively slowly. Nasality starts some 50ms after the release (Fig. 4). From the foregoing, a temporary specification of our segments in terms of CV would be as follows. tv - nil VOT (cf. Acoustic description infra). dv - negative VOT (cf. Acoustic description infra). tv - VOT is more or less brief (cf. Acoustic description infra). dv - Nagative VOT (cf. Acoustic description infra.) Thus far, the Kymogramme in effect, reveals a delay between the release and the resumption of normal voicing without actually indicating the nature of the segment. The duration of this delay can at times be an indicator when it is long. But here, as it is relatively brief, the uncertainty in characterising the aspirated segment as one with turbulence, becomes greater with regard to the voiced item. In the same manner, there is no indication of “murmur” for the voiced aspirated segment, on the Kymogramme. But the only possible indice that can be retained, is the relative smoothness or slugishness of the release (in the aspirated items). On the other hand, the Kymogramme reveals that the vowel which follows the aspirated consonant is practically nasalised. This nasalisation is in the same order as that observed during the closure of a nasal consonant /n/ in /i'nú/ “to hear” (Fig. 5). ACOUSTIC DESCRIPTION TEMPORAL ORGANISATION With the aid of oscillogrammes, sonagrammes and spectral sections of our specimens, it was possible to compartmentalise the items into segments. Measurements, were taken in ms for each segment and readings and comments are shown below. Segmental Organisation (Fig. 6A-D) (a) Vocalic Length (V1) The aspirated items have, in comparison with the unaspirated ones, a preconsonantal vowel slightly longer, with: 189ms for i'dú against 201.6,s for i'dhú 174.4ms for i'tú against 180.6ms for i'thú. (b) Consonantal Closure (CL) The aspirated consonant has a shorter consonantal closure than the unaspirated one. Readings show: 96.6ms for i'dú against 75.6ms for i'dhú. 130.20ms for i'tú against 105ms for i'thú. It is not easy to distinguish the different events in this part of the signal in which, “noise” seems to be the major feature. Explosion (friction as a result of supraglottal turbulence) is, in effect mixed up with aspiration (due to glottal turbulence). However, the total duration of this noise is, 1.5ms for i'dú 8ms for i'dhú 4ms for i'tú 11.5ms for i'thú (the only case where a positive VOT should be added to obtain a total duration of noise of 36.7ms). We therefore obtain a longer period of noice for the aspirated than for the unaspirated segment, the difference being maximal for the voiceless aspirated item. As we shall see further, aspiration is not only associated with the presence of non-periodic noise, but also with a mode of vibration of the vocal cords, the acoustic effects of which we shall examine shortly. This noise is, in effect, of a very faible intensity and so is scarcely visible on the tracings. (c) Vocalic Length (V2) If a positive VOT of 25.2ms is added to the length of V2 in i'thú, we shall obtain: 235.2ms for i'tú 252ms for i'thú 247.8ms for idú and 268.8ms for i'dhú This means that V2 is longer in the aspirated than in the unaspirated item. Cordinative Structure (a) VOT (Voice Onset Time) (Figs. 7A-D) “Voice onset time is specified as the difference in time between the release of a complete articulatory constriction and the onset of quasi-periodic vocal fold vibrations” (LISKER and ABRAMSON (1964). This is the delay in the recommencement of voicing. The VOT is negative for the voiced items where it is equal to the closure. But for the voiceless aspirated item, it is positive (i.e.) 25.2ms for i'thú) and negative for i'tú. This observation has already been made for /p/ and /k/ for which this dialect shows a zero VOT (Pellenq, S. (1982). It is a relatively rare phenomenon in languages where the VOT for voiceless items is generally positive (LISKER and ABRAMSON (1964). However, it can be said that the values of VOT for the voiceless unaspirated and the voiceless aspirated items of this dialect, correspond to those taken for the voiced initial consonants of English (CHOMSKY and HALLE (1981) and voiceless consonants of French. The voiceless aspirated part if therefore relatively brief. (b) VTT (Voice Termination Time) - Figs. 6A-D) “This is the time lapse from articulatory closure to the last glottal pulse..” (AGNELLO(1971). It is a delay before voicing completely stops in V1. VTT is evidently the same as the duration of the closure for the items. But for the voiceless ones, we observe that it is 20ms for /t/ and 32ms for /th/. A close examination of the item with the voiced segment shows a correspondence to this difference in VTT in the sense that the intensity of voicing is better maintained in the voiced aspirated than in the unaspirated item where voicing tends, as it were, to be reduced. We can therefore infer that voicing is better maintained curing the closure for the aspirated than for the unaspirated items. FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY (Fo) - Figs. 8A-D) Following OHALA (1980), it is clear that voiced aspirated consonants lower the (laryngeal) frequency. This is particularly observable at the release where, instead of an abrupt upthrust as in the case of the unaspirated segment, we observe on the contrary, a smooth inclination of the fundamental frequency. It is also worthy of note that the evolution of Fo during the closure is practically the same for the two segments and that the lowering effect on the peak of the following vowel is rather negligible. On the contrary, a slight lowering at the end of the preceding vowel can be observed in the voiced aspirated like in the voiceless aspirated items. But for the unaspirated items there is rather a rise in Fo which persists till the consonantal closure. A similar effect on the establishment of the post consonantal vowel is observed in the voiceless items. The unaspirated item raises the Fo while the aspirated one raises it much more. Consequently, we find, relatively, the same difference for the voiceless as well as for the voiced items. (For the voiced item, cf. Okafor (1981). With regard to the relationship between the two vowels in terms of the structure of the item (i.e. the mean V - V), we find again a slightly greater difference between the aspirated and the unaspirated items (cf. Okafor op. cit. p.26.4). SPECTRAL STRUCTURE The description of the spectral structure will enable us to confirm asoustically, the results already obtained. Thus we shall be led to look for the objective index more directly connected with the opening of the glottis earlier observed at the beginning of the second vowel. This apart, we shall also obtain, from the acoustic structure, some information on a crucial factor for which nothing is known - i.e. (a) Are the consonants aspirated? (b) Precisely, to what extent does this laryngeal mode affect the production of the vowel which follows? i.e. V2 Nasality (Figs. 6A-D and 9A-B) The acoustic index of nasality are still very controversial, too many, not constant and very dependent on the nature of the vowel. This is why, we shall be practically restricted to the acoustic effect of the opening of the glottis, commonly observed in vowels of the type /u/, our specimen. We shall compare the spectral dispositions of the central part of the vowel. The greatest difference is seen in the group of frequencies around 2000 - 3000 Hz. The value of the third formant of oral /u/ which is next to 2000 Hz, disappears in the nasal /u/ to the benefit of a larger and more elecvated frequency zone, the centre of which is situated around 2300 - 2400 Hz. This “displacement” of F3 was associated with the lowering of the glottis/velum DELATTRE (1951). Advanced studies on nasality show that the coupling effect of the oral and nasal cavities is a complex phenomenon which does not permit the generalisation of observable index to all vowels. But by restricting our study to a vowel of the type /u/, we observe that the coupling produces a frequency elevation around the third formant (MAEDA 1982/83). The presence of this indice is manifested around 58.8ms after the release of the voiceless item /th/ and around 46.2ms in the case of the voiced /dh/. Aspiration (Figs. 7 and 10A - D). The search for an acoustic indice of aspiration will be situated at a point where, at the release of the voiceless item, there is the presence of noise of faible intensity during the unvoiced period and at the beginning of the vowel; and also where, at the beginning of the following vowel, there is the presence of the same noise. Because we know that though this indice of aspiration of faible intensity often has some acoustic significance and is perceptibly striking (SCHIEFER and KOTTEN (1984), it is rather from the observation of the distribution of spectral energy on the beginning of the voiced part of the vowel, that we shall be able to identify the “murmur” if any. In effect, for the murmured vowels of Gujarati, Fischer - Jgensen (1977) had already observed that the Fo has an elevated intensity. In like manner, Bickley (1982) noted for Gujarati and Xoo languages, that the intensity of the first harmonics was always higher than that of the second (cf. Stevens 1977). This result has also been found for the murmured part of aspirated items in Hindi (Schiefer and Kotten) 1984). This is exactly what we have observed on the spectrum of the first two periods of voicing in the aspirated item /i'thú/ where the intensity differences between the first and the second harmonics are - 10db in favour of the first harmonics, against 5.5db in favour of the second harmonics in /i'tú/. For /i'dhú/ this difference is -3.6db for /i'dú/, it is 6.4db. We also observe, on the other hand, that the extension of this phonation mode on the spectral structure does not go beyond the first two periods of the release for the voiced, and the first two periods of voicing for the voiceless items. If the following vowel is therefore nasalised, it is not murmured. CONCLUSION From the foregoing, the following can be deduced: (a) the preconsonantal vowel (V1) is longer before the aspirated than before the unaspirated consonant. (b) the aspirated consonant is shorter than the unaspirated one. The length of this consonant is more pronounced when it is voiceless than when it is voiced. (c) the post-consonatal vowel (V2) is longer in the aspirated than in the unaspirated item. This vowel is generally longer in the voiced aspirated item. (d) from the study of VOT and the VTT, it is evident that voicing is better maintained in the voiced aspirated than in the unaspirated item where it tends to be reduced. Although the kymogrammes reveal that the vowel following an aspirated consonant is practically nasalised, this observation is only confirmed after a close examination of the acoustic features of the specimens. A fundamental problem which touches on the phonological naturalness of the aspiration/nasalisation event in this dialect quickly calls to mind. We observe that nasality takes place after voiced aspirated as well as after voiceless aspirated segments, the later having to natural need to be nasalised since they do not need any voicing to maintain. It should have been comprehensible and natural if post consonantal nasality were only restricted to the vowel after the voiced segment. Secondly, it is plausible to diminish a phonemic inventory without necessarily complicating the combinatory composant. Following this simplicity metric, it would have been necessary to posit an aspirated nasal phoneme /h/ which automatically nasalises the vowel segment after it. By so doing, the phonemic inventory of Igbo would have been diminished by a subsequent elimination of what could have constituted the aspirated series. But this would however create a fundamental problem with regard to the syllable structure of this language. This is so because it would mean the acceptance of a CCV syllable. However, whereas this would mean the existence of a CV - CV contrast a CCV - CCV contrast is impossible. e.g hè (to cut) - he (to sneak/hide). But tlu (???) - thu (to sort) The plausibility of this solution is therefore questionable. If it is possible to subject nasality to aspiration (because all but not only post aspirated segments are nasalised), aspiration itself cannot be predicted in this language. On the other hand, aspiration cannot be subjected to nasality since Igbo (indeed Ohafia dialect) does not have nasal vowels. In this situation, a possible solution would have been to regard aspiration and nasalisation as natural ways of organising language. If so, shall we not be falling back to recognising as natural, what we had earlier conceived of as unnatural? In the light of the above, can we really talk of the “aspirated consonant” in this dialect? Or better put, can we talk of aspiration as a property of the consonant or of the vowel or can we take it as a feature neither of the consonant nor of the vowel? End Notes 1. A scholarized form of Igbo which is besides, not spoken by any specific Igbo linguistic group. 2 One of these studies - “Differential Statistics on the Temporal Organization of opposition /b/ - /bh/ in Igbo” is currently being assessed for publication. Impossible 2. /CV/ sequences are realised as /CV/ if “C” is a nasal consonant. REFERENCES AHMED, R: AGRAWAL, S.S. (1960). Singinificant features in the perception of (Hindi) consonants. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 45: 758 - 763. BENGUEREL, A.P.; BHATIA, T.K. (1980). Hindi Stop Consonants: an acoustic and fiberscopic study. Phonetic Laboratory, Division of Audiology and Speech Sciences, University of British Colombia, Vancouver, BC: 134-148. BHATIA, T.K. (1976). On the predictive role of the recent theories of aspiration. Phonetica 33: 62-74. BOE, L.J.; RAKOTOFIRINGA, H. (1971). Exigences, réalisation et limites d'un appareillage destiné à l'étude de l'intensité et de la hauteur d'un signal acoustique. Revue d'Acoustique 4: 104 - 113. CHOMSKY, N.; HALLE, M. (1968). The sound pattern of English. New York: Harper and Row. DELATTERE, P. (1951). Neuromuscular aspects of laryngeal control: With special reference to Hindi. University of Texas, Austin doctoral dissertation. DIXIT, R. P.; MACNEILAGE, P.F. (1980). Cricothyroid Activity and control of voicing in Hindi stops and affricates. Phonetica Vol. 37: 397-406. DUNSTAN, E.; IGWE, G.E. (1966). Two views of the phonology of the Ohuhu dialect of Igbo. Journal of West African Languages 3: 71-75. EKE, U. K. (1989). Aspirated stops and Nasal Leakage in Ohafia Dialect of Igbo. JOLAN Vol. 4, 63-70. EKE, U.K. (1990). Differential Statistics on the Temporal Organisation of opposition /b/ - /bh/ in Igbo (Forthcoming) Paper presented at LAN Conference, UNICAL, Calabar. FENG, G. (1983). La Détection et la mesure de la Fréquence Fondamentale et des formants du signal de parole, Repport D.E.A. INP Grenoble. FISCHER - JRGENSEN (1977). Phonetic analysis of Breathy (Murmured) vowels in Gujarati, in Annual Report of the Institute of Phonetics, University of Copenhagen: 105-156. FREDET, F. (1980). Contribution à l'étude des caractères intrinsèques des phonèmes vocaliques et consonantiques (Hauteur vocalique, Types consonantiques, Intensité Specifique) dans la micro-mélodie en français contemporain. Thèse de 3e cyce, 2 vol. Paris. HALLE, M.; STEVENS. K.M. (1971). A note on laryngeal features. Quarterly Progress Report of the Research Laboratory of Electronics, M.I.T. 101: 198-213. HYMAN, L.M. (1972) “Nasals and nasalisation in Kwa” in Studies in African Linguistics 3: 167-205. KAGAYA, R.; HIROSE, H. (1975). Fiberoptic electro-myographic and acoustic analyses of Hindi stop consonants. Annu. Bull., Res. Institute Logoped. Phoniat., University of Tokyo 9: 27-46. KIRK, P.L.; LADEFOGED, P.; LADEFOGED, J. (1984) Using a spectograph for measures of phonation types in a natural language. UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics 59: 102-113. LADEFOGED, P. (1971). Preliminaries to Linguistic Phonetics. University of Chicago Press. Chicago: 6-21. LADEFOGED, P. (1972) The features of the Larynx; Department of Linguistics, University of California, Los Angeles California U.S.A. 73-83. LADEFOGED, P.; WILLIAMSON, K.; ELUGBE, G.; UWALAKA, A.A. (Sr.) (1976 Supp. 6). The stops of Owerri Igbo in Studies in African Linguistics: 147-163. LISKER, L.; ABRAMSON, A.A. (1964). A cross language study of voicing in initial stops: acoustical measurements. Ward 20: 284-422. MADDIESON, I. (1977) Further studies on vowel length before aspirated consonants. UCLA WPP. 38: 82-90. MAEDA, S. (1982/83). Acoustic cues of vowel nasalisation: A simulation study in Researches/Acoustic vol. 7: 25-36. NIHALANI, P. (1974). An aerodynamic study of stops in Sindhi. Phonetica 29: 193-224. HIHALANI, P. (1975(B). Velopharyngeal opening in the formation of voiced stops in Sindhi. Phonetica 32: 89-102. OHALA, M. (1980). Phonological features of Hindi stops. Report of the Phonology Laboratory Vol. 5 96-105. OHALA, M.; OHALA, J. (1972). The problem of aspiration in Hindi phonetics. Annual Bulletin RILP (Tokyo) 6: 39-46. OKAFOR, N. D. (1981). Types consonantiques et tons en Igbo d'Ohafia (Nigeria). T.E.R. Université de Grenoble III. PELLENQ, S. (1982). Organisation Temporelle des occlusives dites “Doubles” de l'Igbo d'Ohafia, Nigéria. Etude Acoustique. Mémoire de D.E.A. Sciences du Language, Grenoble III. ROSSI, M. (1971 (b)). L'intensité specifique des voyelles. Phonetica Vol. 24 (3): 129-161. SCHIEFER, L.; KOTTEN, K. (1984) Amplitude Envelope and the perception of Breathy stops in Hindi. Munchuen FRG: 459-463. STEVENS, K. M. (1977). Physics of Laryngeal Bahaviour and Larynx modes. Phonetica Vol. 34: 273-274; 276-277; Vol. 4: 264-279. WILLIAMSON, K. (1973). More on nasals and naslisation in Kwa; in Studies in African Linguistics 4: 115-138. LONG VOWELS, DIPHTHONGS AND THEIR TONES IN EDO LANGUAGE SAMUEL IZEKOR DEPARTMENT OF NIGERIAN LANGUAGES COLLEGE OF EDUCATION P.M.B. 1144 EKIADOLOR, BENIN EDO STATE 1. INTRODUCTION By the classification of Westermann 1952, and Greenberg 1966, Edo language is a member of the KWA branch of the Niger-Congo group of languages. It is the main language of the Ancient Kingdom of Benin in Southern Nigeria. This paper examines the nature of Edo vowels with a view to proving the existence of long vowels and diphthongs in Edo language. This is further driven home by the fact that these long vowels contrast with their short counterparts in analogous environment. A logical phonetic representation of these long vowels and diphthongs is proposed here. A modification of the existing Edo vowel charts is also proposed without bias to the English language that already exhibits such features. Finally the tone pattern of the long vowels is discussed and the existence of a phonemic contour tone, the rising tone, in Edo language is established. 2. LONG VOWELS IN EDO LANGUAGE 2.1 The Former Position In the literature, it is generally assumed that Edo language has twelve vowels. Of these twelve vowels, seven are said to be oral while five are nasal. They are as follows: Oral [ i ] - close front unrounded oral vowel [ e ] - half close front unrounded oral vowel [ ] - half open front unrounded oral vowel [ a ] - open oral vowel [ ] - half open back rounded oral vowel [ o ] - half close back rounded oral vowel [ u ] - close back rounded oral vowelNasal vowels: [ ] - close front unrounded nasal vowel [ ] - half open front unrounded nasal vowel [ ] - open nasal vowel [ ] - half open back rounded nasal vowel [ ] - close back rounded nasal vowel These vowels are placed in Edo vowel charts as follows: Fig:1 not able to upload yet. 2.2 THE NEW POSITION From the foregoing it is clear that there is a position namely that there is no distinction between long and short vowels in Edo language. In other words, it was assumed that all Edo vowels are of the same quality. Our position here however, is that there is a distinction between long and short vowels in Edo language. In the date below, long vowels in some Edo verbs are reduced to their short counterparts during the process of nominalization: Data 1: Verbs Nouns i. Kii 'to be thick ukimwe 'thickness' [Ki ] [ùkí ] ii. Ghee 'to watch' Ughe 'tatching' [ ] [ ùré ] iii. Ghee 'to prostitute' Oghe 'Prostitution' [ ] [ò ] iv Waa 'to display wares' Owa 'market stall' [ wa: ] [ ówá ] v. Khoo 'to be tern' Okho 'sternness' [ X : ] [ Òx ] vi Roo 'to think' Iro 'a thought' [ o : ] [ ò ] vii. Kuu 'to play' iku 'a play' [ Ku: ] [ ìkù ] viii. Yiin 'to behave' Uyinmwe 'behaviour' [ i: ] [Ù ] ix. Teen 'to be related to' t n 'a relation' [t : ] [ t ] x. Yaan 'to vow' Eyan ' a vow' [y : ] [ ya ] xi. Khoon 'to dispute' Okhon ' a dispute [X :] [oX ] xii. Kuun 'to pack/arrange' Ikun 'a pack' [K : ] [ìk ]. From the above data it is clear that long vowels do exist in Edo language. As earlier pointed out these long vowels are reduced to their short counterpart during the process of nominalization. This can be accounted for by the following phonological rule: Rule 1: V[+long [-long]/#VC - *(…) # *(…) takes care of example 1 and viii. PHONETIC REPRESENTATION Also, from the data above the proposed representation of these long vowels is the use of the length marker (:) which is universally acceptable. This length marker will distinguish the long vowels in Edo from their short counterparts. A striking observation is that all the vowels earlier identified in Edo language have long and short counterparts. There are more examples in the language for these vowels, but these few are given for the sake of space. This raised the number of pure vowels in Edo language to twenty-four. They are as shown in the following proposed revised Edo Vowel Charts: 3. DIPHTHONGS Two diphthongs /ae/ and / e / also exist in Edo language. Although, further investigation may reveal more, the existence of these two is undisputable. Consider the data below: Data 2 xiii. Eguae - 'Palace' [ gwàè] - /ae/ xiv. Oghae - 'Portion' [ò áè] /ae/ xv. Erhae - 'his father' [éráè] /ae/ xvi. Iyee - 'his mother' [íj è] / e/ xvii. Egbee - 'himself/herself/itself' [ègb e] / e/ These diphthongs can be placed in a chart as in Fig. V below. not able to upload 4. TONES AND EDO LONG VOWELS In data 1, examples I to xii it can be observed that the long vowel in Edo bear a contour tone, the rising tone. From all indications, there is no logical explanation that will make the contour tone the result of a tonal process. This therefore proves that the contour tone (the rising tone) is one of the phonemic tones in Edo Language. This is against the earlier position that Edo is a two basic tone and a downstep language. Here, we can now identify three basic tone levels in the Edo language namely: the high, low and the rising tone. 5. CONCLUSION In this paper we have examined the long vowels in Edo language and proposed a modification of the existing vowel charts to accommodate them. Two diphthongs were also identified and discussed. Finally the tone pattern of the long vowels was examined and it revealed the presence of the contour tone, the rising tone, as one of the basic tones in Edo language thereby raising the number of basic tone in Edo to three instead of two as in the literature. REFERENCES Agheyisi, R. N. (1986): An Edo-English Dictionary. Benin: Ethiope Publishing Corporation. Amayo, A. (1983): “Tone Rules and Derivational History in Edo Phonology” in Ivan R. Dihoff (ed.) Current Approaches to African Linguistics, Vol. 1, The Netherlands: Foris Publications. Egbokhare, F. O. (1994): Introductory Phonetics. Ibadan: Sam Bookman Publishers. Izekor, S. O. (1999): “Written Language, the Teacher and the Student: The Edo Language Situation” being a paper presented at the 9th National Conference and AGM of Modern Languages Association of Nigeria (MLAN) held in the University of Benin from February 10th 13th 1999. Omozuwa, V. E. (1989): “Speech Tempo, Consonant Deletion, and Tones in Edo Nouns”. In Studies in African Linguistics. Vol. 20, No. 3, PP 317 337. Omozuwa, V. E. (1990): “An Experimental Study of Nasalization in Edo” in Journal of Asian and African Studies, No. 40 PP. 34 50. Omozuwa, V. E. (1993): “Vowel Elision, 'Floating' Tone, and Downstep in Edo” in Journal of Asian and African Studies, No. 45. Pp 17 29. Omozuwa, V. E. (2000): “Perception of Tones in Edo: Evidence from Synthesized Speech Tones” in Kohno, Morio, Kobe Kaisei (Stella Maris) College Japan. PP. 1 5. Welmers, W. E. (1973): African Language Structures. U.S.A.: University of California Press. Yul-lfode, S. (1999): A Course in Phonology. Port Harcourt: Riverside Communications.
MORE ARTICLES CULTURE AND UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION (U.B.E.): THE NIGERIAN CHILD AND THE CHALLENGES OF THE 21ST CENTURY MONYEH MITTI PETER (LECTURER) DEPT. OF THEATRE ARTS ,COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, AGBOR, DELTA STATE, NIGERIA. ABSTRACT The concept of culture and its dynamic nature in the face of Globalization in the 21st century is assuming on alarming rate. Since culture is all embracing and bearing in mind cultural evasion and imperialism due to globalization phenomenon, what is the fate of the third world countries? How would the third world countries sustain their culture in the cultural globalization where the world is ruled by computer, and the internet controlled by the rich powerful developed nations? With culture at the heart of the development of every nation, the third world countries like Nigeria would have to arm her citizenry with education education being a potent weapon for cultural development, if she should have an identity in the community within the global village. In the context of this paper the theoretical issue that is involved is the concept of culture and globalization in relationship to the UBE. In other words the role of Education under the present dispensation. It is this interpretation that guides the choice of this paper's title. It shall be a study on the role of education as tools for the Nigerian child in facing the challenges of the 21st century globalization, computer age, democratic governance and issue of National identity. We believe just as Mcluhan that the world has become more of a 'global village' ruled by the Internet. The world is becoming more complex and change has become the phenomenon taking place every second of the day. The essence of change could be more understood by examining Neil Postman and Charles Wingartner's 'Change Revolution’ that in the last 50 years, change has taken place sorapidly and in so many areas that it is possible to say that change has changed. Up until the last generationmany people were born, grew up, and lived most of their life in the United States, without moving more than fifty miles from their birthplace. They had few challenges to their basic values, beliefs and behaviour patterns. The knowledge they gained in school was never outdated. Today New Maths, discoveries in space exploration, computer technology and the Chemistry of the gene have made many traditional subjects old fashioned even as students are learning them. In the modern world change is more normal than stability (1969:10). The import of the above is the dynamic nature of the world. The question is, how open is the door of change to the Nigerian child in facing the challenges of the 21st century? If the aphorism that the youths are the leaders of tomorrow is true, then it behoves on every one of us to get the Nigerian child equipped for this onerous task. Our presentation is therefore from the perspective of how we can achieve this by using education as tools for this task education being a veritable tool for change. There is no doubt that today's world is ruled by these salient elements globalization, democratic governance, and National Identity all of which are engineered by change and reflection of the world culture. In this wise, this discuss shall revolve on 1. Education. 2. Culture / National Identity. 3. Universal Basic Education (U.B.E) so far. 4. Globalization. 5. Conclusion, discussing the meeting point of culture, education, National Identity, globalization and their impact on the Nigerian child in the 21st century. EDUCATION Education is responsible for the transmission of the cultural heritage. In non-literate societies education and socialization are the same. The child acquires the values and skills he needs as he grows with the adults as he watches what they do and doing it with them. The world is becoming more complex. Education has become more formal and takes place within the school. The school provides the human being with assistance in meeting his intellectual needs. The Educational institution is therefore an important agent for the socialization of the young, which helps him to understand his society. There is no doubt that education is a tool for changing the individual and the society at large. The ideals of a society, economics, politics, social outlook could be influenced by education. For a nation to improve its per capital income, level of civilization, better perception of ideas, education would have to play a great role. The role of education in today's world is very numerous to be enumerated but suffice it to add further that amongst these are: Literacy is a major factor in stable, democratic government. The school produces the literate electorate, which makes democratic process possible. Education creates room for social mobility since it emphasizes achieved status as against ascribed status. As societies develop into open class system occupational placement can no longer be by percentage and pull. As Landis State. Schooling is key to occupation placement in an industrial society. Farm workers in unmechanized agriculture need little formal education or even literacy to work the land. As the economy shifts from agriculture to manufacturing, the educational needs of a society change… Most factory workers need to be able to read at least simple Instructions and signs in order to perform their jobs. (1972:305) Novak states it succinctly; (American schools)…. are social and economic screens, separating those to be granted prestige and economic possibilities from those less fortunate. Since the explosion of technology during World War II, knowledge has become a major source of power and wealth in America. It is less possible than it was 30 years ago to quit school at the sixth or seventh grade and become a 'self-made man', and it is also harder to maintain inherited wealth without the advice of academy trained expert. (1967) Any wonder then that Article 26 of the United Nation's declaration of human right states in clear terms that education is an inalienable right of the child? What this boils down to is that a child has a right, a right which cannot be compromised to any ground or reason. In 1963 the Organization of African Unity (OAU) (now African Unity) endorsed the Child's right to education when it signed a declaration aimed at a twenty year education development programme of the continent of Africa. In consonance with this issue of education in 1976 the Federal Government of Nigeria embarked upon Universal Free Primary Education Programme (U.P.E.). Then in 1977 the National Policy on Education was published and later revised in 1981. It was stated that the nation aim at achieving a 'land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens'. In September 1999 the president of the Federal Republic of Nigeria Chief Olusegun J. Obasanjo launched the Universal Basic Education (U.B.E.) scheme. We shall come to this later. CULTURE The concept of culture originated with anthropologists as they studied the ways of life (culture) of non literate people. Culture consists of language, ideas, beliefs, customs, codes, instructions, tools, techniques, work of art, rituals, ceremonies etc. According to Edward B. Tyler. Culture…… is that complex whole which includes: Knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as member of society (Encyclopedia Britannica (1978:894). The cultural policy of Nigeria states that, culture is the totality of the way of life evolved by a people in their attempt to meet the challenges of living in their environment, which gives order and meaning to the social, political, economic, aesthetic and religious norms and modes of organization, thus distinguishing a people from their neighbours. P.H. Landis (1972) puts it succinctly that the: “things the individual Learns the content so to speak, of socialization process is culture”. He adds further that “Culture is the stored-up knowledge, ways of doing things and material creations of the ancestors. It is man's social heritage” (1972:53) Man's behaviour his attitude, values, ideals and beliefs is powerfully influenced by the culture that surrounds him all through his life. The power of culture on human being cannot be quantified. According to Encyclopedia Britannica (1977) “culture is stronger than life and death….. culture triumphs over death and offers man eternal life”. The import of the above is that culture is the totality of man's life. Culture guides attitude and habit formation of a people. Man is the custodian and molder of culture. There is no doubt that culture could be an enduring vehicle for a National Identity. In a multi ethnic state like Nigeria culture can sustain the social demands of justice, equity and sense of solidarity and unity. Culture can thus act as galvanizing agent in the face of unity in diversity. Culture can play the role of projecting the ideals of national unity which can act as mechanism for mass mobilization and identity and thus aids creation of ideals towards a national goal, while protecting its nationals from culture imperialism in a manner Raget Neojy describes as do-culture or 'don't-culture. This could lead to desired cultural development. NATIONAL IDENTITY National Identity which is the sole objective of culture is a subject of universal significance. Bamidele (1997) defines National Identity as 'a people's proud attachment to a political self-image'. It is also our contention that for any nation to move forward the issue of National Identity can neither be overlooked nor trampled upon. A national culture identify could be developed through making a constitution or having a common religious background. For a multi ethnic nation like Nigeria to talk of National Identity there should be neatly formulated ideology representing the spirit of our culture from the backdrop of precolonial, colonial and the modern times. Besides, the political will must be nurtured. National historical importance that can act as mechanism for mass mobilization need be fashioned into the identity that could galvanize the country into one strong entity. The possibility of a common language, value system, history, literature could be of great importance. What we are saying is that for the nation to attain the goal of National Identity the citizenry need to be educated. Grassroot training for this orientation must start with the education of the child. GLOBALIZATION The concept of Globalization is too large for this paper. Therefore our focus here will be on globalization as it affects the concept of culture, the issue of cultural globalization. Globalization is commonly perceived as a move towards a global economy, which transcends the restrictions of national boundaries. Its primary focus is on trade liberalization, production and financial markets. It operates through the information technology of the Internet, and satellite. Globalization has compressed the world into one 'global village' a situation where information gets from one part of the earth to the other as if it is from the next door neighbour. It has improved distant communication process and created a cultural globalization. The effect of globalization on human being in respect of cultural values is assuming an alarming rate. Manuel Castells states that: The information technology revolution and restructuring of capitalism have induced new form of society, the network society. It is characterized by the globalization of strategically decisive economic activities. By the networking form of organization by the flexibility and instability of work and the individualization of labour. By a culture of real instability constructed by a pervasive, interconnected, and diversified media system. (1976:114) Rubens Ricupero Secretary General of the United Nation Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) sees globalization as: “A process whereby producers and invertors increasingly behave as if the world economy consisted of a single market and production area with regional or national subsectors, rather than a set of national economics linked by trade and investment flows. (UNCTAD:6) According to Betiang 2002: Globalization operates on three distinct levels. Globalization of trade where integrated world market are created through trade liberalization, globalization of production: whereby transnational corporations (TCN) set up factories in countries other than their home countries and globalization of markets: whereby national controls on financial transactions are removed to encourage free flow of fiancé across national borders. (2002:5) He affirms that these activities were being made possible because of the development in communication technology. Though many express the fear of cultural imperialism and cultural invasion of the third world countries by the developed nations, due to globalization process, truth is that computer age has come to stay. All the third countries need do is to look inward and develop their areas of comparative advantage which they could package and export to the developed world so as to reduce the maginalization of the third world countries. Suffice it to say that in waging a war one can only sustain it if he understands the language of the war. What we posit here is the importance of arming oneself in facing an opponent. To understand and withstand globalization, education of its citizens should be uppermost in the agenda of the third world countries. Nigeria while implementing its UBE programme should realize that UBE is a foundation stone for all other levels of education. A solid foundation should therefore be laid while improving the higher institutions at the same time in leu of absorbing the graduates of the Universal Basic Education (UBE). UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION (UBE). In September 1999 the president of Nigeria Olusegun Obasanjo, launched the UBE programme. The UBE is seen as government's policy instrument designed to nip in the bud the issue of illiteracy. The Basic goals and objective of the UBE scheme are: to universallize access to basic education, engender a conducive learning environment and eradicate illiteracy in Nigeria within the shortest possible time (2002:13) The blue print of the UBE scheme identified three areas namely: Formal basic education encompassing the first nine years of schooling (primary and junior secondary education) for school age children of pastoral nomads and migrant fishermen and literacy and non-formal education for out-school children, youths, illiterate adults. It stated further: That for 2000/2001 the number of pupils to be accommodated in the scheme in primary one will be about 1.2 million. At the rate of 40 pupils per class this will require the provision of 280,000 classrooms. (Vanguard 2000:13) However it is very pertinent to state that since the launching of the programme (UBE) many waters, have flown under the bridge. There have been accusations and counter accusations which pose threat to the success of the programme. Issues have been raised of poor finding of schools, man power development, inadequate infrastructure and the politicizing of the scheme. Many problems seem to be trailing the scheme from its inception, amongst which are stated in an editorial of the Daily Champion. In the case of the UBE there is no reliable birth and death register or even current census figures to ascertain the number of children of school age in any given school year… that certain states of the Federation have capitalized on this to inflate the number of pupils registrable for the UBE (Sept. 6 2002:10). Professor Ojo Olofinboba, an ex-commissioner for education in Ondo State argued that: The success of the programme, however, depends on the planning based on accurate statistical data (that) would enable government.. to determine the financial involvement of the programme so there will be adequate financial backing and provision of adequate infrastructures like classroom, furniture, laboratories, libraries, teaching equipment and teaching aids, (the Guardian Tues. 2nd March (2000:45). There is also the fear of prudent management of the budgeted funds. As one commentator puts it: Leaving aside, for a moment the question of allocated funds, especially in the ministry of education and how well that ministry is endowed to manage the system and execute the awesome task involved. The country's record in the past decade cannot, in all honest, be called inspiring or reassuring. (Punch June 2000:33) However, whatever the problems bedeviling the UBE programme one thing is very glaring politicking or otherwise with the UBE will do the country no good. CONCLUSION The meeting point of culture, education, National Identity Globalization and their impact on the Nigerian child in the 21st century form the summary of the paper. Why the fuse about culture? Culture is all life embracing and dynamic. Culture has very powerful influence on the individual and the society. The survival of any nation depends to a large extent on its national identity. Globalization has come to stay for good or for bad. Globalization is also concerned with cultural globalization, which at times becomes detrimental to the development of poor nations. It has been observed by some people that globalization is a relentless force for good and for bad. It could be likened to imperialism. According to Loise Frechette UN Deputy Secretary General” 'The reality (of Globalization) is more complex. Globalization has brought about as many benefits as it has engendered new risks'. Now how do we play safe before this double headed hydra? Education has become a very potent transformation force in cultural engineering of societies all over the world and more so in the 'global village' dispensation, where the world is inhabited of unequal citizens in terms of development the world being divided into first, second and third worlds. The phenomenon of globalization, cultural development and national identity and their attendant relationship and effect becomes of utmost importance to the Nigerian child for the challenges of the millennium. For Nigerians to develop Nigerian culture that will have national identity with the globalizing environment a lot of sacrifice need be made. This can only be achieved when majority of the citizenry becomes educated. After all, it was educated elites who formed the bulk of the nationalists in the fight for the independence of African nations. REFERENCES: Castells, Mannuel. The Power of Identity Maiden, Massachusetts, Blackwell. 1997. Cultural Policy for Nigeria Lagos: Federal Government Press 1998. Landis H. Paul: Sociology (New Edition) Lexington Massachusetts Ginn & Coy 1972 ed. Michael Novak “University in Crisis” Christianity and Crisis” cited in Sociology New Edition: by Paul H. Landis. Lexington Massachusetts. Ginn & Coy 1972 ed. National Policy on Education Lagos: Federal Government Press 1981 (Revised ed) Noel, Postman & Charles Weingartner, Teaching as a Subversive Activity: New York. Delacorte Press 1969. Omozeghian, G. E. Introduction to Sociology of Education: Agbor. Pon Publishers Ltd 1995. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica. Vol. 16 Macropaedia Chicago. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Inc. 1998. 15th ed. SEMINAR PAPERS: Bamidele L. O. “The Salience of Culture in National Identity Formation in a Polytechnic Social System” 1977. Betiang L. Globalization & the Concept of Cultural Development and National Identity 2002. NEWS PAPERS: Daily Champion Lagos. Daily Champion Sept. 6th 2001:10 The Guardian Lagos. The Guardian News Paper. March 2000:45 The Punch. Lagos 2000. National Concord Lagos. The National Concord. March 22nd 2000. Vanguard Lagos Thursday Dec. 7th 2000:13-14 MAGAZINES: Noegy Rajat Magazine Culture: Transition 4:18. 1965:31+ OTHER: Globalization and Liberalization Development in the Face of Two Powerful Currents. Report of Secretary General to the 9th Session UNCTAD N/Y & Geneva 1996.
Purple Coneflower Native American Indians are said to have used this plant for more medicinal purposes than any other plant group.
The Value of White Flowers White flowers match any other colors of flowers and therefore help blend flowerbeds, making them more pleasing to the eye.