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UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA MR. AKPORHERHE, FRIDAY DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH COLLEGE OF EDUCATION AGBOR, DELTA STATE ABSTRACT Language is very important in every human interaction. It is the medium of education. This explains the fact that in Nigeria, to be educated is synonymous with literacy and proficiency in English Language English being the official language. This paper examines the concept of Universal Basic Education (UBE) and English Language in terms of definition, origin, purpose, relevance and prospects. It concludes that if both concepts are properly harnessed, synthesized and implemented, it will encourage, promote and sustain national development in Nigeria. INTRODUCTION Education is as old as the existence of man on earth. The early man learnt to adapt to his social and physical environment by observation and precarious learning. Later generations were taught to cope with their environments by the process of socialization. Over the years, governments have evolved national objectives to be attained through education because education has been acclaimed as the instrument for the development of a nation. It is a tool that appears to have been utilized by developed nations to attain national development. Developing nations particularly countries in Africa have sought national development by using education to attain desired objectives. In Nigeria, after over four decades of Independence, the degree of illiteracy is still alarming and the standard of education is fading at an irredeemable rate. It was in view of the above that the Federal Government of Nigeria evolved the Universal Primary Education (UPE) scheme1976 and the Universal Basic Education (UBE) in 1999. Again, it is quite obvious that there is no need questioning the use of English Language serving as an effective medium of communication and instruction in the educational sector in Nigeria. This is so because we are aware of the historical forces that have denied or suffocated the possibilities of the triumph of indigenous languages and ensured the continual dominance of the English Language in Nigeria. UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION (UBE) IN NIGERIA Historical Perspective One of the challenges confronting Nigeria as a young democratic nation relates to the issue of achieving a greater measure of national development. Going by world history, this can only be achieved through education because according to Ehiametalor (2002), education is the single most important energy that moves a nation on a fast lane of economic development. Education creates human capital for the actualization of industrial and services outputs. As a result, the productive capacity of any nation depends solely on its ability to recognize the impeccable ability of manpower. After forty-two years of independence, there is still a greater continuing need to provide for our children and indeed for all our citizens, the basic educational skills they require to be useful citizens in their communities, country and world at large. Education is better understood when we see it as a means of instilling, especially in our young ones, the importance of a number of fundamental values, such as devotion to the well-being of our motherland, respect for our constitution and the importance of democratic governance, a sense of the dignity of work and moral uprightness as well as respect for the rights of other citizens. Instead of education achieving the above and producing future leaders with sound and progressive minds, what we now have is the failure of those goals with its attendant woes rampaging cultism, examination mal-practices, mal-adjustment, low level of students' intelligence, fraud, murder, advance free fraud, and perversion of the otherwise sacrosanct educational institution. These have also further lead to wanton reduction in the intellectual and psychological fitness, readiness and quality of the labour force. It is in the light of the above, that the Federal Government of Nigeria is determined to restore within our society the interest and dignity of learning and scholarship along with general consensus and concern that education should be made universally available. This growing concern for making education available to all has been translated in many countries, including Nigeria, into universal education schemes. In Nigeria, it blossomed into the famous 1976 Universal Primary Education scheme which for one reason or the other collapsed in the 1980's and in 1999, there was the birth and launching of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) by president Olusegun Obasanjo to take off from where the Universal Primary Education (UPE) had failed. Universal Basic Education (UBE) by definition provides a minimum level of education. This is to say a level of education below which no one in the particular society is allowed to fall and for which sanctions may be applied on those who may prevent their wards from taking advantage of it. The term “Universal” of course suggests a programme that is made to affect the entire spectrum of the society, regardless of social and economic circumstances and physical condition. That is to say such a programme is not only fully supported by government and in some cases non-governmental agencies but also that every section of the society is sufficiently sensitised to take advantage. The other operation term “Basic” implies provision of a minimum level of education that can make the individual function effectively in his society. What is basic is, in general understanding, what is serving as a base. It is thus, that which is fundamentally essential, primary, bottom line or root in relation to something else. This something else can either be knowledge or life. Thus, knowledge which is basic, is that which is essential in appreciating or knowing higher forms. Education on its own is seen as an activity systematically organized by respective societies to achieve certain aims and objectives. The central aim of education is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes considered useful and desirable by the particular society. Thus, teaching and learning remain the quintessential education tasks. The Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme is almost the same as the old Universal Primary Education (UPE) scheme. It is free and universal like before, but now in addition, it will be compulsory and has a wider scope and better coverage. Thus, the new Universal Basic Education (UBE) now extends to all children from age six of age fifteen. It provides a nine-year universal, free and compulsory education covering primary and junior secondary education as well as rural population, nomadic population, persons in physical isolated settlements, urban slums, adult illiterates, street children, children and adolescents with special needs, the 'girl child', the 'boy child' and other special areas of need. ENGLISH LANGUAGE AS A FACILITATOR IN UBE IMPLEMENTATION Education appears to maintain its position as the pivot on which the wheel of the progress of our nation rotates. The development of ideas, scientific advancement, technological breakthrough, economic development etc of any nation are made possible by educational theories and practices formulated and implemented through language. The question now is, what is language and what are its function as it relates specifically to education? Sapir (1970) defines language as: a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols… It is the tool of significant experience. Present in this definition is the fact that language is very important in everyday human interactions. Language enables the individual to communicate his thoughts to others by means of speech. Gladstone et al (1969) asserts that language is the medium of education and that a speaker's cultural attitude is reflected in his speech patterns. Commenting specifically on the use of English as a language, Obanya et al (1987) characterised English as: The language of commerce and the law, of politics and administration, education and of culture at all levels above the locale. An adequate knowledge of English is an indispensable requirement for anyone to rise above or to live in any wider context than the village. This shows that at a certain level in Nigeria one cannot get by with just being monolingual. Today, English remains the language of Nigeria's national survival. Her national policy on Education recognises this and so does the Constitution. The National Policy states that: Government will see to it that the medium of instruction in the primary school is initially the mother tongue or the language of the immediate community and at a later stage, English. Thus, the pride of place given to English in the educational system is very obvious. English exists as a second subject in early primary school and displaces the mother tongue as a medium of expression in later primary school. Throughout Secondary and Tertiary Institution, English remains the medium of instruction. Thus, the role of English in education is a confirmation of its status as the language of national survival as well as the official language. English, being the official language of communication in Nigeria, serves national and international purposes. It is the language of instruction in the school and constitutes part of the means of the education process. It provides the setting for meeting the educational goals of the country and must address itself to the task of realising the purposes of education which is, to help the child towards relating appropriately to others and acquiring Scientific and Technological awareness among others. English, as part of the means of the education process thus, provides opportunities for meeting the language needs of the individual in the society. A moderate level of English is expected of every average Nigerian for the purpose of transacting business and coping with demands of professions both nationally and internationally. It is partly for these reasons that English has become part of the total education of the ordinary child and partly an indispensable subject in the school curriculum and in the nascent Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme in Nigeria. UBE, ENGLISH AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. According to the dictionary definition, a Nation is “a large community of people usually speaking a single language and usually living a political character or political aspiration”. This definition appears to qualify Nigeria as a nation because a single language-English (though foreign) remains the lingua franca for now and she reflects a common political character. On the issue of national development, it is pertinent to have a cursory working idea of what “Development” and “National Development” consist in, so as to enable us know how best Universal Basic Education (UBE) and English language can play its role in advancing the course of national development. Although the term national development had been misconceived largely in economic terms, and forgetting the fact that education as the purveyor of knowledge par excellence is the one instrument that makes the most direct input to our national development. Without fear of contradiction, one can posit that Nigeria's dismal showing in the arena of national development since Independence is largely attributable to our inability to tap the enormous resources of education. The question now is, what is development? The Director General of UNESCO in his address to the conference of the International Council for Adult Education in 1982 had this to say: Development then, is a process that encompasses all aspects of community life, draws the specific contributions of all social groups and enables them all to reap the fruit of national endeavour, it entails the general monilisation of the resources of each people's power and creativity, the continuous development of its capacity for mastering modern scientific and technical knowledge. In the light of the above, National Development involves fundamental phenomenon. These embrace economic, social, political and administrative reforms, attitudinal changes of people to work, acceptance of discipline in private and public life. According to Obanewa (2000), National Development touches all aspects of a society and the lives of individuals in it. Old habits and ways of life have to be discarded or modified, age-long customs have to yield place to modern ones, traditional technology is replaced by modern and more efficient technology, values are forced out by new ones. The developmental process may be painful. It brings about change in all facets of life. It is an overall social process which is dependent upon the outcome of man's effort to deal with his natural environment. However, National Development and progress will remain circumscribed for as long as ignorance prevails as a result of inadequate education. It follows that without that level of compulsory education contained in the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme, we cannot even begin to think of becoming part of the knowledge driven, information-conscious, high-tech controlled, and economically competitive world of the 21st century. Therefore, if Nigeria is to move forward fast enough to be a forceful member of the global world in the 21st century, her human capital has to be empowered through basic education as recommended by the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme using the instrument of the English language to enable her play a key role in the great task of socio-political and economic transformations that lies ahead. On the issue of relevance of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) and its contribution to National development, we may recall that the Universal Declaration of Human Right which the UN General Assembly adopted in 1984 asserted that “Everyone has a right to education”. Hence the basic aim of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) is geared towards equipping individuals with such knowledge, skills and attitudes that will enable them; live meaningful and fulfilling lives, contribute to the development of the society, derive maximum social, economic and cultural benefits from the society and discharge this civic obligations competently among others. The report of the Jomtien conference further posits that apart from acquisition of knowledge for its own sake, the UBE: Empowers individuals and confers upon them a responsibility to respect and build upon their collective cultural, linguistic and spiritual heritage to further the course of social justice… to be tolerant toward social, political and religious system which differ from their own. The Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme therefore offers this nation another golden opportunity to wake up from sleep and resume the race for national development, a race in which we have been left behind by many countries that were comparatively at the same level of development with us at independence in 1960. CONCLUSION Educationists believe that all processes of education are undertaken towards the end goal of transferring knowledge and skill to the learner. This is taken as the ultimate aim of education when the learner is made to absorb past experiences of practices in education in order to be well equipped individual to face life in all its ramifications. He is thus, given the necessary skills and the mental orientation to become a balanced member of his society. The whole process of making an individual a good member of his society is an important way of making him contribute his won quota to the development of the society, hence the educational system in Nigeria use the medium of English Language being the lingua franca to enable the individual contribute his quota to his own personal and national development. The essence of English in the Universal Basic Education (UBE) implementation is to ensure that the recipient receive the kind of education that will facilitate their communicative competence and 'know-how' in their chosen careers. The level of awareness and acceptance of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) has increased since the launching of the programme in 1999. From all indication, the proper implementation of the Universal Basic Education (UBE), will help to educate the mind and develop the learner's intellect and rational thinking ability that will enable learners strive for truth, justice, and fair play in national matters. Thus, the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme is capable of becoming a light that could eradicate illiteracy and ignorance, turn our country into a land where the old and the young, male and female are prepared to work hard by learning skills and science with a view to applying the latter for the improvement of their living conditions. REFERENCE Ehiametalor, E.T. (2000) “UBE: Lesson from the Past” in The Nigerian Academic of Education. Benin City: Ambik Press Ltd. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1981) The National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Press. Gladstone, J.R. (1969) Language and Culture in English Teaching. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Jomtien Conference (1990) Report on World Declaration on Education for All and Framework for Action to Meet Basic Learning Needs. Obanewa, O. (2000) “Administration, Non-Formal Education and Development”. Inaugural Lecture. Sapir, E. (1970) Language. London: Granda. ESSENTIALS OF MOTHER-TONGUE NEWSPAPERS TO THE UBE SCHEME. Abiodun Salawu, Ph.D Department of Mass Communication University of Lagos. Introduction In the current information age, no education programme destined to succeed can afford to discountenance the mass media. It is in this light that Inyan-Abia (2002: 143) notes that mass media (together with instructional media) have enormous capacity for literacy development through properly structured curriculum. One of the widely-acknowledged functions of communication is education. This, in essence, means that communication is a vehicle for education. Mass media have the potentials of diffusing information fast and wide; and, it is in this sense that they are indispensable in mass education programme. While the broadcast system has been of great value for distance learning, the print media as well are of immense value for their peculiar advantages of visuals, permanence and chronology. Print media, themselves, are, by nature, vehicles for literacy as they are required to be read for information and knowledge (Salawu, 2002). If we agree that education is not possible without communication, we would also agree that education is also not possible without language. This is because language as a system of symbols is a basic tool of communication. Ajayi and Oyetayo (2002:61) further note that language is a veritable vehicle of interaction and a means of education through which human beings pass their culture from one generation to another. This, therefore, means that literacy promotes a people's culture, custom and tradition and enables people to sell their culture to the outside world. As a corollary, the significant role that language plays in the totality of culture is acknowledged. Greenberg (1971:156) notes: Language is the prerequisite for the accumulation and transmission of other cultural traits... Language is not a necessary condition for culture, it is itself part of culture. Communication, and by extension, education, is better enhanced in a medium that expresses the totality of the culture of a given people. Meanwhile, evidence abounds about the efficacy of the use of indigenous language or mother-tongue for instructional purposes (McNamara, 1965; Klein, 1994; Luckett, 1994; Okombo and Rubgumya, 1996). In particular, the 'Ife Six-Year Primary Project' clearly demonstrated the efficacy of Yoruba for instructional purposes (Babalola, 1985; Afolayan, 1976). All these form part of the reasons why the Nigeria's National Policy on Education set aside the mother-language or the language of immediate community as the medium of instruction at the initial stages of the primary school. Thus, this paper would consider the essentiality of newspapers published in mother-tongue to the success of the Universal Basic Education Scheme. The Universal Basic Education (UBE) Scheme The idea to establish the Universal Basic Education (UBE) Scheme was triggered in 1990 during the Jomtien World Conference on Education for all. At this conference, participating nations were requested to provide basic education to their peoples. By the declaration of this Conference, basic education refers to education intended to meet learning needs, which in turn have been defined as the knowledge, skills, attitude and values necessary for people to survive, to improve the quality of their lives, and to continue learning. Nigeria is a signatory to the 1990 Jomtien declaration. As a result, the nation's government, on September, 30, 1999, launched the national UBE Scheme. Almost similar to the Universal Primary Education (UPE) launched in 1976 , the goals of the UBE are to universalise access to basic education, engender a conducive learning environment and eradicate illiteracy in Nigeria within the shortest possible time ( Popoola, 2001 : 218 ). There are three components to the UBE Scheme. They are: (i) formal basic education encompassing the first nine years of schooling (primary and junior secondary education) for all children; (ii) nomadic education for school age children of pastoral nomads and migrant fishermen; and (iii) literacy and non formal education for out of school children, youth and adult illiterates. The UBE objectives include: (i) To develop in the entire citizenry a strong consciousness for education and strong commitment to its vigorous promotion; (ii) To provide free, compulsory universal basic education for every Nigerian child of school going age (iii) To reduce, drastically, drop out rate from the formal school system through improved relevance and efficiency; and (iv) To cater for drop outs and out- of- school children/adolescents through various forms of complementary approaches to the provision and promotion of basic education. Significantly, UBE comprises a wide variety of formal and non formal educational activities and programmes designed to enable learners acquire functional literacy. Popoola (2001) notes that the Scheme is meant to be the foundation for sustainable life long learning. NIGERIA'S LANGUAGE POLICY IN EDUCATION Different Nigerian Governments had considered what languages are suitable for passing instructions at different levels of education. The National Policy on Education (1977) stipulates that the medium of instruction initially in the primary school would be the mother-tongue or the language of the immediate community and, at a later stage, English . The 1981 revised edition of the policy aimed not at just promoting the mother tongue, but also enhancing national unity. Adeniran (1995:192) echoes the policy document: In addition to appreciating the importance, and as a means of preserving the people's culture, the government considers it to be in the interest of national unity that each child should be encouraged to learn one of the three major languages other than his own mother-tongue. In this connection, the government considers the three major languages in Nigeria to be Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. Many factors are probably responsible for the language policy adopted by Nigeria. Ogenyi (2002:132) postulates that one of such factors is the recommendation made by the UNESCO meeting of experts in Paris in 1951. This meeting recommended that, on education grounds, the use of the mother-tongue be extended to as late a stage in education as possible. It stated that pupils should begin their education through the medium of the mother-tongue, since they understand it best and because to begin their school life in the mother-tongue will make the break between home and the school as small as possible. Another UNESCO Conference held in 1953 in Jos, Nigeria could have also inspired the content of the nation's education language policy. The theme of the conference was the use in education of African languages in relation to English. It affirmed that the ideal medium of instruction for a child should be the child's mother -tongue. A similar UNESCO Conference held in 1970 in Yaounde Cameroun examined the functions of African languages as means of educational vis-à-vis literacy and of course socio-cultural and economic development (Ogeniyi 2002:133). The Conference made the following assertions: 1. The languages spoken by African peoples have irreplaceable and decisive part to play in the establishment of a system of education and the widespread dissemination of science and technology, and of authentic national cultures. 2. The African language spoken in the home is the best medium of African thought. 3. Education will not be effective until primary school education …. becomes a natural extension of the pre-school education received at home and in kindergarten. To achieve this, it is necessary that primary school programmes be based on the child's immediate environment and the basic rules of his mother-tongue. EFFECTIVENESS OF MOTHER-TONGUE AS MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION There is ample evidence in research findings about the efficacy of the use of indigenous language or mother-tongue for instructional purpose. There are reports from across the world to buttress this claim. This paper would, however, mention just two experiences in Nigeria. They are the DRCM/NKST Literacy Program in Tiv language (Tsumba, 2002) and the Ife Six-Year Primary Project (Babalola, 1985, Afolayan, 1976). Tsumba (2002) chronicled how mother-tongue education was planned, organised and implemented effectively in Tiv language, between 1911 and 1980. It was a project credited to the Dutch Reformed Church Mission (DRCM) and later the Church of Christ among the Tiv, locally known as the Nongo U Kristu Hen Sudan Hen Tiv (N.K.S.T) Tsumba concluded that the DRCM/NKST experience had proved beyond reasonable doubt that literacy in the mother-tongue is more effective and more functional than in a foreign language, no matter the status. He remarked: The DRCM/NKST could not have achieved their objective of evangelisation in Tivland within that short time without the use of the mother tongue of the target population.(Tsumba, 2002:216). He further noted that the experience made Tiv society a very literate society. As an indication, as from 1940, certain newspapers and magazines were published in Tiv language and were edited by Tiv mother- tongue journalists. Names of Paper Date Editor i Mwanger u Tiv (monthly) 1940s Akigasai ii Icha regh (weekly) 1950s Isaac Kpum iii Mkaanem (monthly) 1950s Pastor S. Saai Tsumba again recalled that in spite of the exclusive use of Tiv language in DRCM/NKST schools, the first graduate to be ever produced in Tiv land a 1964 Chemistry graduate of University of Ibadan was a product of the school. Equally, the first Tiv lawyer was also from the system. The Ife project was an experiment carried out by the Institute of Education of the then University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo Univeristy, Ile-Ife). The experiment was done using pupils of a primary school in Ile-Ife. A set of these pupils was taught all their subjects, except English language, in Yoruba, while another set received its own instructions in English. When examinations were conducted, pupils whose medium of instruction was Yoruba performed far better than those instructed in English. THE PRINT MEDIA The modern newspaper is society's primary instrument for mass communication. It has, with greater regularity, over more years and in more places, kept the logbook of human affairs than any other medium of communication. Prior to the advent of printing technology, human societies had evolved a number of methods to record information through writing. Defleur and Dennis (1981:32) note that before the advent of writing and media, social, political and economic development had been agonizingly slow and human existence remained relatively simple for centuries. The invention of printing has been credited to John Gutenberg, a German who lived between 1400 and 1468. His 42 line 'Bible', was, to some extent the first printed book. This was printed by Gutenberg at Mainz and was finished not later than 1455 possibly a year or two earlier. The technical excellence of the book makes it unlikely that this was the first that Gutenberg attempted, and it was later established that it was preceded by a number of earlier and less perfect efforts, including several editions of Aclius Donatus's Ars Grammatica. Defleur and Dennis (1981) posit that the history of newspapers is as long as the history of books. According to them, the newspaper had some fore-runners. The Romans, about the times of Christ, posted daily news sheets in public places. In the mid 1500s, leaders of Venice made news of the war in Dalmatia regularly available to the public at the payment of a gazette, a small coin. In London, 1621, Coranto was also sold to the public. However, the characterization of modern newspapers is remarkably different form those of the above mentioned publications. A true newspaper is defined as a paper that: (a) is published at least weekly; (b) is produced by a mechanical printing process; (c) is available to people of all walks of life (for a price); (d) prints news of general interest rather than items on specialised topics such as religion or business; (e) is readable by people of ordinary literacy; (f) is timely; and (g) is stable over time. MOTHER-TONGUE NEWSPAPERS IN NIGERIA Iwe Irohin Fun Awon Ara Egba ati Yoruba was historically significant for being the first indigenous language newspaper in Africa (Akinfeleye, 1985:35; Duyile, 1987:17) and indeed the first newspaper in Nigeria. Iwe Irohin was established by Reverend Henry Townsend, a missionary of the Church Missionary Society (CMS) in 1859. Excited over this unique feat, Townsend, in a despatch to the CMS in England, wrote: I have set on foot a Yoruba newspaper. My first number is out, I am writing the second. My object is to get the people to read i.e. to beget the habit of seeking information by reading (Duyile, 1987). Folarin and Mohammed (1996:101) categorised the establishment and appearance of the mother-tongue newspapers into five 'waves'. According to them, Iwe Irohin stood on its own in the first wave (1859-67) while the second wave covers the period 1885-92 and featured two Efik papers, Unwana Efik and Obukpon Efik as well as a Yoruba paper, Iwe Irohin Eko. The third wave started with the founding of Eko Akete in 1922 and ended with the second and final death of the paper in 1937. The fourth wave began with the entry of Gaskiya Tafi Kwabo (1937/38) and went on till Nigeria attained independence and republican status in the 60s. The rest of the development till the present time, they note, may be conveniently subsumed in the fifth and the last 'Wave'. Of all the newspapers in the first to the fourth 'Wave', only Irohin Yoruba and Gaskiya Tafi Kwabo still exist till today. Gaskiya Tafi Kwabo (Truth is worth more than a penny) was established by the quasi-official Gaskiya Corporation, which had an objective of promoting the development of literature in the North. Gaskiya Corporation which, at different times, had been named Northern Literature Bureau and Northern Literature Agency (NORLA) for the purpose of expansion, published other periodicals in the different languages of the region. Coker (1968:211); Duyile (1987:115) and Hayat (1983) make a list of the periodicals for each of the twelve provinces of the then Northern Region: Ardo in Fulfulde for Adamawa; Gamzaki in Hausa for Bauchi; Mwanger U Tiv (1948) for Tiv and Okaki Idoma in Idoma for Benue; Albashir (1951) in Kanuri for Borno etc. Iroyin Yoruba was established on June 4,1945 by Chief Obafemi Awolowo. It is presently, on the stable of African Newspapers of Nigeria Plc, publishers of Tribune titles. Gboungboun had its first appearance on October, 29,, 1970. It is a publication of the distressed Sketch Press Limited. The equally distressed Concord Press of Nigeria (CPN) Ltd., published Isokan, which started on July15, 1980. Other mother-tongue newspapers on the stable of CPN included Amana (Hausa) and Udoka (Igbo), which started in 1980 and 1981 respectively. The emergence of Alaroye newspaper in 1996 marked a milestone in the affairs of Yoruba and, indeed, mother-tongue newspapers in Nigeria. Within a short time, this newspaper became popular because of its arresting cover design and styles of headline-casting and story presentation. It actually popularised reading of Yoruba newspapers among the folks. It is the largest local language newspaper with a circulation figure of not less than 150,000 per week. It sells in Europe and several West African countries where the Yoruba reside (The Fourth Estate, 2000:7). Its publishers, World Information Agents , have also added other Yoruba publications to their stable. They include: Alaroye magazine, Atoka Alaroye, Iriri Aye and Akede Agbaye. The success of Alaroye and the frenzy political situation in the country before the return of democracy and at the birth of democracy have also triggered the emergence of other Yoruba publications. These include: Ajoro, Alaye,and Ofe. There are other local language newspapers in Nigeria. A lot of these are, however, obscure and unknown. MOTHER-TONGUE NEWSPAPERS AND THE UBE SCHEME UBE Scheme is a mass education scheme, and, therefore, collocates with mass media, a part of which mother-tongue newspapers are. Mother-tongue newspapers are channels of mass communication and, therefore, would facilitate the diffusion of the basic education wide and fast. Mother-tongue newspapers, being mass media, would also, to a great extent, alleviate the problem of inadequacy of teachers for the Scheme. The newspapers themselves are educators and, since they are mass media, reach wide and heterogeneous audience, thus taking care of the unavailability or scarcity of teachers. Mother-tongue newspapers, being mass media, also facilitate non-formal education. People who, because of age or occupation, cannot afford to go to formal school can avail themselves of the opportunity of newspapers because of their advantages of portability and reading at convenience. With this, they can acquire knowledge of a wide variety of non-formal educational activities and programmes designed to enable learners acquire functional literacy. Because of the advantage of permanence of print media, mother-tongue newspapers will be available to the learners for continual reference. Even though, the coverage and treatment of literacy/education in Yoruba (mother-tongue) newspapers can be better, Salawu (2002) yet contends that Yoruba newspapers have been doing fairly well as media of instruction. Mother-tongue newspapers have potentials for this especially because they publish in languages indigenous to the people. And, with the evidence at our disposal, mother-tongue is more suitable than any foreign language to basic education which the UBE Scheme is meant to popularise. A good foundation in mother-tongue is a pre-requisite to functional literacy and even to proficiency in any foreign language (Awoniyi, 1995). CONCLUSION Since a plausible argument has been made for the use of mother-tongue newspapers for the UBE Scheme, it is, therefore, apposite to advocate for the promotion of Nigeria's indigenous languages. And, if the indigenous languages must survive and grow, the media, especially the print, must be encouraged to use them. Print media aid literacy, therefore the media operating in these languages must be encouraged for it is with these languages that our people can be effectively informed for development purposes. Banjo (1995:186) underscores the indispensability of the media and creative writing in this regard: But when all is said and done, the success of a language policy should not be left entirely in the hands of educational authorities. There are other agencies which can aid preparedness on the part of the general populace for the kind of reform envisaged by the national policy on language in education and the provision of the constitution. I should like to single out for consideration here creative writing and the media (emphasis mine). REFERENCES Adeniran, A. (1995). 'Language Education Provisions in Nigeria's National Policy on Education; A Critique' in Kola Owolabi (ed.) Language in Nigeria, essays in honour of Ayo Bamgbose. Ibadan: Group Publishers. Afolayan, A. (1976). 'The Six-Year Primary Project in Nigeria' in Ayo Bamgbose (ed.) Mother Tongue Education :The West African Experience . London, Paris: The Unesco Paris. Ajayi, M. A. and M. O. Oyetayo (2002). 'Literacy and Language Policy in Nigeria'. Literacy and Reading in Nigeria, Vol. 9, No. 2, a journal of the Reading Association of Nigeria. Akinfeleye, R. A. (1985). 'Religious Publications: Pioneers of Nigerian Journalism' in Onuora Nwuneli (ed.) Mass communication in Nigeria: A Book of Reading. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd. Awoniyi, A. (1995).'Determining language in Education Policy. The Dilemma in Africa' in Kola Owolabi (ed.) ibidem. Babalola, A. (1985). 'West African Languages in Education: the literacy dimension' in K. Williamson (ed.) West African Language in Education. Wien: Afro- Pub. Banjo, A. (1995). 'On Language Use and Modernity in Nigeria' in K. Owolabi (ed.) ibidem. Coker, I. (1968): Landmarks of the Nigerian Press.Lagos: Nigerian National Press Ltd. Defleur, M. L. and E. E. Dennis (1981) Understanding Mass Communication. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Duyile, D. (1987). Makers of Nigerian Press . Lagos: Gong Communications. Federal Ministry of Information (1977). Federal Republic of Nigeria National Policy on Education (Revised in 1981). Folarin, B. and J. B. Mohammed (1996). 'The Indigenous Language Press in Nigeria' in O. Dare and A. Uyo (eds). Journalism in Nigeria. Lagos: NUJ, Lagos Council. Greenberg, J. H. (1963). The Languages of Africa. The Hague: Montorr Hayat, A. S. (1983). 'NORLA and the story of publishing in the former Nothern Nigeria' in S. Bello and A. Augie (eds.) Culture and the Book Industry in Nigeria. Lagos: NCAC. Inyan-Abia, M. E.(2002). 'Literacy Development and Media Availability: Curriculum Implications of a Correlational Study of Human Development Indices (HDI) in Selected African Countries'. Literacy and Reading in Nigeria, Vol. 9, No.1. Klein, C. (1994): 'The need to maintain mother-tongue' in Die Suid-African Special issue on education. Luckett, K. (1994): 'National additive bilingualism: towards a language plan for South African education'. South African Journal of Applied Language Studies. Vol. 2 (1). McNamara (1965): 'The problems of solving difficulties of bilingual children'. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society. Ogenyi, L. Z. (2002): 'Literacy and Language Policy in Nigeria'. Literacy and Reading in Nigeria, Vol. 9, No. 1. Okombo, O. and C. Rubgumya (1996): 'Synopsis of research findings on languages of instruction and their implication\ for education policies in Africa' ADEA Newsletter Vol. 8 (4). Popoola, T. O. (2001). 'Nigeria Universal Basic Educational Scheme: Learning from Universal Primary Education Experience'. Journal of Educational Thought. Vol. 1, No.2 Lagos: Dept. of Adult Education, University of Lagos. Salawu, A. S. (2002): 'Literacy communication and learning in Yoruba Newspapers'. A paper presented at the 9th Biennial conference of the Reading Association of Nigeria, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, and Oct. 8-12. The Fourth Estate No. 9 Lagos: IJC/JODER. Nov/Dec., 2000. Tsumba, Y. I. (2002). 'Literacy in Indigenous Languages in Nigeria: The Tiv Experience'. Literacy and Reading in Nigeria, Vol. 9, No.255
THE UBE PROGRAMME: A BEDROCK FOR SUSTAINABLE DEMOCRACY IN NIGERIA. ANOPUE, CALISTUS ELO CUSSONS DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION FACULTY OF HUMANITIES, IMO STATE UNIVERSITY OWERRI. INTRODUCTION. Democracy - the government of the people, by the people and for the people - is a system of government with some intricate procedures. As such, it seldom thrives well with illiterate populace. Thus, the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme is a laudable one, going by its blueprint. It is best poised to turning around in a positive sense, the educational terrain of the country. This paper seeks to highlight the relevance of education, at and from the grassroots, to Democracy; and its indispensability to its sustenance. It also examines the socio-economic and socio-political implications of illiteracy to a developing country like Nigeria, practising Democracy. The Universal Basic Education programme is herein seen as capable of enhancing, stabilizing, and sustaining Democracy in Nigeria. It concludes by suggesting ways by which the UBE programme could be made more functional. THE UBE DEFINED. On the 3oth of September, 1999, at the Kangiwa Square in Sokoto State, the Head of State, Chief Olusegun Obansanjo launched an apparent new educational programme tagged the "Universal Basic Education" (UBE). The same Head of State in the same Kangiwa Square in 1976, then an Army General, launched a similar educational programme the Universal Primary Education (UPE). Regrettably, the scheme was short-lived because of lack of continuity, corruption, and policy sustenance (cf. NUT Newsletter, 2000:12) According to the NUT newsletter (Ibid), the specific aims and objectives of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme of the Federal Government of Nigeria are: Developing in the entire citizenry, a strong consciousness for education, and a strong commitment to its vigorous promotion. The provision of free universal Basic Education for every Nigerian child of school-going age Reducing drastically, the incident of drop-out from the formal school system (through improved relevance, quality and efficiency) Catering for young persons who for one reason or another, have had to interrupt their schooling as well as other out-of-school children/adolescents through appropriate forms of complementary approaches to the provision and promotion of basic education Ensuring the acquisition of the appropriate levels of literacy, numeracy, manipulative, communicative and life skills as well as the ethical, moral, and civic values needed for laying a solid foundation for life long learning The Universal Basic Education Scheme, from its original conception is a laudable programme. Each of the federating states was expected to turn out annually, 150,000 literate Nigerians with a targeted 18.9 million initial pupils' enrolment, reaching an optimum level of 22 million by 2005. It has a mass literacy programme (MLP) with a targeted 40 million literate adults in eight years at the rate of 5 million per year. 30,000 Teachers were billed for training against the programme by the Federal Government, and 28,000 classrooms to be built. (cf. Segun Adediran, the Punch, Sept. 24, 2002:15). It is programmed to include the formal, informal, and non-formal approaches to education; in order to elevate the literacy level in Nigeria to that of the advanced world. In a bid to making the Universal Basic Education Scheme more adaptable to the Nigerian native environment and culture, there has been an incorporation of the following programmes: Programmes/initiatives for early childhood care and education Education programmes for the acquisition of functional literacy and life-skills; especially for adults (persons aged 15 and above). Special programmes for nomadic populations. Out-of-School non-formal programmes for updating the knowledge and skills of persons who left school before acquiring the basics needed for life - long learning. Non-formal skills and apprenticeship training for adolescents and youths who have not had the benefit of formal education. (NUT Newsletter, Op.cit). The Scheme, in the formal school system starts from the beginning of primary school education to the end of the junior secondary school. It is intended to be Universal, free and compulsory. The Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme, at the long run is aimed at equipping the illiterate citizenry with knowledge, skills, and attitudes that will enable them: Live meaningful and fulfilling lives Contribute to the development of society Desire maximum social, economic, and cultural benefits from the society. Discharge their civic obligations (effectively) (Okoli, 2002:15) From the blueprint, the UBE Programme is no doubt a laudable one (just like most (Federal) Government programmes). What now remains is its effective and conscientious implementation so that it would not join its ancestor - the Universal Primary Education (UPE). DEMOCRACY DEFINED. Democracy as a concept is not easy to define. Also, as a system of government, it has acquired different nuances by different people. Etymologically, Democracy is made up of two Greek root words "Demo" and "Cracy", meaning, "People" and "to rule" respectively. Put together, it becomes "people's rule" or "rule by the people". It was a form of government practiced by the ancient Greeks. In Athens, male adults usually met to deliberate on issues of common interest, reaching a decision that could be called consensus. In Africa, this form of government was being practiced by the Igbo of Eastern Nigeria before the advent of the colonialists (cf. Ndoh; 1994: 92). This form of direct Democracy has been made impossible due largely to population growth and modernization. It was replaced by "representative" Democracy. Two types of "representative" democracy are the Socialist Democracy and the Capitalist or Liberal Democracy. While the former exists in Socialist countries, the later is found in Capitalist countries. We shall at this point give some definitions by some scholars on the concept. Abraham Lincoln's definition of Democracy seems to be the most famous of all. For him, “Democracy is the government of the people, by the people and for the people". According to J. Bryce (1921:22): Where the will of the whole people prevails in all important matters, even if it has some retarding influences to overcome, or is legally required to act for some purposes in some specially provided manner, that may be called a Democracy... a government in which the will of the majority of qualified citizens rule, taking the qualified citizens to constitute the great bulk of the inhabitants, say, roughly, at least three -fourths, so that the physical force of the citizens coincides (broadly speaking ) with their voting power. As for J.W Garner (1928:317): ... a representative government is one whose officials and agents are chosen by an electorate democratically constituted, who during their tenure of power reflect the will of the electorate, and who are subject to an enforceable popular responsibility. E. E. Schattschneider (1960:141) sees Democracy as "a political system in which the people have a choice among the alternatives created by competing political organization and leaders". Essentially, Democracy is a system of government that vests the ultimate political authority on the people, as such; legitimacy is ultimately derivable from the people. It implies a decision-making system based on majority rule, with minority rights protected. It guarantees the freedoms of speech, press, religion, assembly, petition, and equality before the law (cf. Oyovbaire, et al; 1991:16.) Some of the main features of Democracy include - periodical elections, elective posts open to qualified individuals, open competition and freedom of choice, Liberal suffrage, freedom of expression of opinion, freedom of assembly, freedom of association, freedom from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment, adequate sources of Information, freedom of teaching, learning and research, unlimited freedom of inquiry, and consistent willingness to abide by the rules EDUCATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEMOCRACY. The concept Education as used here could be understood to mean, the systematic instructions and trainings (formal, informal and non-formal) leading to the acquisition of knowledge and skills that enhances one's mental powers and character. When a country has a populace, who has through formal, informal, and non-formal trainings and instructions acquired knowledge and skills, which has enhanced their mental powers and character, that country is said to have an educated citizenry. It is very difficulty, if not impossible, to find a contemporary Democracy in which the populace rule or govern directly. They can only influence government policies through what could be called "indirect" control. As R. M. Maclver (1952:27-8) puts it: The People - do not govern and cannot govern; they control the government. In every live Democracy, they decide issues partly - and in the last resort- at the polls, and partly by the continuously manifested indications of public sentiment. The civil society determines the march and direction of politics in any given country (cf. Ernst Schulz, op. cit: 4) The civil society as defined by J. Keane (1988:14) is: An aggregate of institutions whose members are engaged primarily in a complex of non-state activities... and who in this way preserve and transform their identity by exercising all sort of pressures or controls upon state institutions. Democracy as a form of government characterized by the responsibility of those who govern to those who are governed, has some in-built mechanisms through which those who govern could be made to conform to the principles of responsibility and accountability by the governed. According to Ernst Schulz (op. cit: 4): The office-holders being the holders of authority are those who really govern, but the way they govern may be significantly determined by the degree of social pressures of various kinds, which may be brought to bear upon them. Some of these in-built mechanisms for accountability and responsibility inherent in a Democracy involve some intricate procedures and processes that the “illiterate” may find very difficult to cope with. For instance, the processes involved in recalling an elected political office-holder cannot easily be comprehended and applied by an illiterate populace, so also are the processes in holding a referendum, plebiscite, a periodical election (understanding the manifestoes of political parties/politicians) understanding and influencing a government policy, amendment of the constitution, national conferences etc. We have to at this point be a little more specific on areas in which illiteracy has hampered and retarded the evolution of 'true' Democracy in Nigeria. 1. POLITICAL CULTURE: it refers to the beliefs, values, and attitudes that condition or mold the political behaviour of a particular people in a particular political environment. It affects the worldviews (Weltanschauung) of both the governed and those who govern. According to Oyovbaire, et al (op. Cit: 17): "The Nigerian political culture can be identified with egalitarianism, nationalism (to some extent) (sic), corruption, patronage, patriotism (now in process), and of course on a less positive side, ethnicisim and violence". There is no gainsaying the fact that the prevalent political culture in the country is far from being Democratic. The implications and corollary of this are political instability, political apathy, “un-fair” and “un-free” elections, a constitution that is flagrantly abused, a government policy that is arbitrary, and a riotous and whining citizenry 2. POLITICAL PARTICIPATION: political participation refers to the enthusiasm of the citizenry to seek elective positions, and to vote for those seeking elective positions. The political participation in Nigeria is characterized by political apathy - a condition where those who are qualified to vote and be voted for shy away from political activities. Political apathy is a direct reflection of the political culture of a country, mostly a consequence of illiteracy and uninformed citizenry; because it is only when one participates in an activity that one stands the chance of shaping or changing the nature of that activity. 3. FREE AND FAIR ELECTION: Election is the process through which we choose those who govern us by voting at the polls. It is free and fair when the real winner emerges instead of a spurious one. Free and Fair election could be impeded by bribing of electoral officers and electorates, political violence, hijacking of ballot papers and boxes, falsification of figures, etc. An enlightened and educated populace will definitely be difficult to be bought over at the polls. They will rather conscientious analyze a candidate's manifesto and programmes to know if to or not to vote for him or her. That Nigerian Undergraduates and Graduates alike are used as political Thugs speaks volumes of the quality of education in the country. It also highlights the fact that Poverty can bend an educated populace, since without the economic gains of Democracy; no amount of education can humanize a hungry man. Education is supposed to train the Hand (skill acquisition) the Head (develop the brain) and the Heart (tame the mind). Here again, the importance of the Universal Basic Education stares us on the face. An educated populace who have the right kind of political awareness can seldom be used as political thugs, bought at the polls or accept falsified election results. They will definitely resist a falsified result, The Ivoriens seemed to have demonstrated this when they resisted General Guei's falsified election results and virtually drove him out of Ivory Coast. 4 SAFEGUARDING THE CONSTITUTION: The constitution refers to that document that shares rights and obligations amongst the federal and federating units, the different arms of government, and between those governing and the governed. If the keeping of the spirit and letters of the constitution could be ensured, sustainable Democracy is a surety. The constitution provides for some freedoms which if ensured, the civil society could easily influence, for the benefit of Democracy, the actions of those in government. As Ernst Schulz (op. Cit: 8) puts it: These are freedom of speech and of the press, freedom of assembly, freedom of association, and freedom from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment. Without these freedoms, the role of the people, except for occasional trips to the polls, is largely restricted to silent and passive observation of what public officials are doing. 5. CONTRIBUTING TO GOVERNMENT POLICIES: It takes a literate populace to understand the policies of the government. It is only when a policy is reasonably understood that one can make an input into it. Direct actions by qualified voters on questions of policy often occur through such devices for direct legislation as the initiative and referendum. Submission of constitutions and constitutional amendment to the voters for approval is also provided for in some bodies politic (Ernst Schulz. Ibid.) CONTRIBUTING TO GOVERNMENT POLICIES: It takes a literate populace to understand the policies of the government. It is only when a policy is reasonably understood that one can make an input into it. Direct actions by qualified voters on questions of policy often occur through such devices for direct legislation as the initiative and referendum. Submission of constitutions and constitutional amendment to the voters for approval is also provided for in some bodies politic (Ernst Schulz. Ibid.) When the government formulates policies with little or no input from the populace, the consequence is the implementation of policies that has little or nothing to do with the priority needs of the citizens. This denies the "dividends of Democracy". According to President Olusegun Obasanjo, in his book "This Animal Called Man', "Democracy dividends denied is Democracy endangered". Well, the relationship between education and sustainable Democracy, and the importance of the former to the latter cannot be overemphasized. Education helps to sustain unity in diversity, as such, reducing inter-ethnic violence. When one understands the culture of the other in a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic set-up, one will be convinced to respect it. No doubt, ethnic and religious violence is rife in those areas with low education rating. According to Ndoh (op. cit: 122) There should be mass enlightenment of the electorate. It is only an enlightened electorate that can ensure the continuous existence of Democracy. Ndoh (1994:95) quoting MAMSER Manual holds that successful Democracy demands from the citizens certain level of ability and character-rational conduct and active participation in the government, the intelligent understanding of public affairs, independent judgment, and unselfish devotion to public interest. Some of these qualities like independent judgment is very difficult for an illiterate. This is why people talk about this or that person coming from "our zone" not minding whether he or she is a thief. The individual is not assessed based on his or her merit but based on his political party, ethnic grouping, or religion. Quoting Ndoh (Ibid) further: In a country where the masses are not properly educated, the citizens may not appreciate the meaning of the issues, which come before them at elections. They may be misled to vote for wrong candidates and manifestoes. Moreover, when this is done, Democracy has been endangered. In fact, the success of Democracy depends largely, on the existence of enough opportunities for the adequate development of the personalities of the citizens. There must be an easy access to knowledge and skills through formal, informal, and non-formal instructions and trainings that will enhance the mental powers and characters of the citizens through state-aided free education. And this is where the Universal Basic Education Programme of the Federal Government comes in. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION. From its blueprint, there is no doubt the fact that the Universal Basic Education programme is a laudable one and best poised to elevating the literacy level in Nigeria to that of the advanced countries in not more than two decades from now. However, when one looks behind, the ghost of the Universal Primary Education (UPE), an ancestor of the UBE stares one on the face. The question becomes: What could be done to ensure and sustain the functionality of the UBE? The first step is to ensure that the "cankerworms" that destroyed the UPE are not given breeding space in the UBE. According to Okoli (2002: 4), quoting Yoloye (1988), some of the problems that led to the collapse of the Universal Primary Education were: 1. Contracts for construction of primary school classrooms awarded were either not completed or badly executed. 2 Large sums of money being spent on Hotel bills of the recruited expatriates waiting for up to six months in the country on the UPE. 3. The federal government by 1979 threw on the shoulders of the state and local governments, the financial burdens of the UPE 4. Salaries of teachers could not be paid as at when due from 1979 upwards. 5. Some primary schools became permanently closed. 6. Poor funding resulted in the formation of the National Primary Education commission (NPEC) through Decree No. 31 of 1988. 7. Curriculum content was overloaded ... (it had adverse effect on the attainment of permanent literacy and numeracy). 8. Educational services such as libraries, counseling services, audio-visual aids and basic health scheme were lacking; less than 6% of the primary schools had access to basic health facilities 9. No textbooks for 77% of the pupils. 10. About 5% of the schools had no school building and some rural schools did not make use of the provided building because of very low enrolment. 11. There was no free education as fees were introduced in various forms. 12. Anticipated compulsory schooling is yet to be achieved. (Cf. Journal of ANCOPSS, Vol. 6, No 1). Some of those problems that endangered the UPE have resurfaced with the birth of the UBE. With the April 5,2002 Supreme Court ruling on the seaward Boundary of a littoral State, declaring illegal the federal Government first line charges, including funds for the implementation of the UBE programme, by pronouncing primary education the constitutional responsibility of the state. (Cf. Segun Adediran, op. cit.). With the 85 billion Naira budgeted for the programme's take-off by July, 2002, the politicians went for each other's jugulars in a bid to corner the juiciest contracts. As Segun (Ibid) puts it: Several Governors, including Senator Bola Tinubu and Bisi Akande, openly declared that the FG's N5million award of a three-classroom block was outrageously high. For instance, Tinubu said the Lagos state six-classroom block was awarded at a cost of N1.85 million. Indeed, like a premature baby, the programme had been made to suffer a lot of postnatal crises from inception. What more could be said than that our Leaders should be more conscientious in their implementation of the UBE programme. Corruption should be avoided. The federal Government should be allowed to play a principal role, not only a regulatory role and fixing of minimum standards, in the implementation of the programme. To encourage enrolment into Teacher-education, the Government should give scholarship to any person reading an education course, and trained Teachers should be employed and retained. The government should put a vibrant coordinating and administrative machinery in place, to co-ordinate efforts among the federal, state, and Local Governments. The Nigerian Union of Teachers had suggested a structure for a National Universal Basic Education Commission (NUBEC) (cf. NUT Newsletter op. Cit: 11). There should be policy sustenance and continuity for the programme. Corruption should be eschewed. One may trivialize the pathetic nature of the Nigerian educational sector until one encounters the unpardonable fact that it is only 4.7 percent of Nigerian children of school - going age that are in school. Nigeria is presently occupying the unenviable height of ninth position as the most illiterate country in the world according to UNESCO's classification. The federal Government should review the Revenue Allocation Formula in favour of the states, and place morality in front burners of its activities in pursuing the UBE programme. There is no need pretending about it, an illiterate citizenry is one of the greatest dangers to Democracy. No meaningful development, including the sustenance of Democracy, can take place in the absence of basic education to all classes of the civil populace. REFERENCES. Adediran, S. (2002). UBE: Between Law and Morality. Lagos: The Punch (September, 24th, 2002) Bryce, J. (1921). Modern Democracies, Vol.1 N. Y.: The Macmillan Co. Garner, J.W. (1928). Political Science and Government. N. Y: American Book Co. Keane, J. (1988). Democracy and Civil Society N.Y: Verso. Maclver, R.M. (1952). The Ramparts We Guard. N.Y: the Macmillan Co. MAMSER, "Towards a Free and Democratic Society”. Political Education Manual. Calabar; State Commercial Printers Ltd. Ndoh, C. A. (1994). Introduction To Political Science Enugu: Tudor Group Publishers. ----------------(1997). Nigerian Politics, Owerri: CRC Publishers NUT (2000). NUT Newsletter, March 2000. Abeokuta: NUT Print House. Obasanjo, O. (2000). This Animal Called Man; Lagos African Leadership Forum. Okoli, E. C. (2002). A Study of the UBE Programme in Nigeria Using the Decision- Making Theory of P.P.B.S An unpublished M.ED paper, UNICAL. Oyovbaire, S. et al (1991). S.S.C.E Government. Ibadan: Evans Brothers Ltd. Schattschneider, E. E. (1960). The Semi-sovereign People N.Y. Holt, Rhinechart and Winston. Schulz, B.E. (1977). Democracy (2nd ed.) N.Y: Barron's Educational Series Inc. THE SCHOOL LIBRARY AS A FACTOR IN THE UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION (UBE) PROGRAMME OKEE OKORO Dept of Library Science, Imo State University, Owerri INTRODUCTION It is an accepted aphorism that no modern society can function without an intensive use of books. It was Sir Richard Steele who said that “reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body.” Books are among the greatest instruments of freedom and free communication including the availability of reading materials as preserved by the librarians. Books are essential to the preservation of a free and creative society. A further argument is that even though the book and library are known imperatives in mental development, their appreciation in Nigeria leaves much to be desired. Education is an index for measuring development and remains a matrix for gauging the literacy level of a nation. Over time, there have been varied educational programmes for effectively uplifting the academic lives of the Nigerian people. From the Chief Obafemi Awolowo's free Primary Education Programmes for the Yoruba States, to the Universal Primary Education (UPE) scheme; from the Nomadic Education Project to the present Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme, efforts were always geared towards the proper teaching/learning of school children. In all these programmes, huge sums of money, materials, and relevant infrastructure were expended but the expected results were not garnered. This paper argues that the current UBE programme would fail where and how others did unless concrete efforts are made to put in place such a learning/teaching aid as the library. The underlying logic here is that the school library is a basic ingredient for the fruitful realization of the UBE programme. THE (NIGERIAN) UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION PROGRAMME We are not interested in the historics of the UBE programme which should rightly be left to those writers who may be doing papers on them; rather the attempt here is to periscope the UBE scheme in line with the provision of relevant infrastructures especially Libraries. The basic ingredients of the UBE project are: (i) the school enrolment index properly suggests that there are very many persons of school age who are not in school; (ii), the standard of education in the country was believed to have fallen which necessitated urgent/quick response by the government; (iii), education of individuals is a right especially under democratic ideals which makes it imperative that any government of the people should endeavour to consider proper education of (Nigerian) citizens; and (iv), unless a conscientiously articulated system of orientation/reorientation by way of knowledge building (as in the eradication/ reduction of illiteracy) is embarked upon, the nation would be lagging well behind in the present “information age” millennium. Though the underpinnings may not exactly correspond, there is no doubt that the Universal Basic Education Programme is the present government's response to the low-enrolment of pupils of school age in Nigerian schools. Whether we think in terms of the Almajiri system of the North, the money/business mentality of the East, the farming/ fishing convictions of the South South, etc., the refusal of children to go to school and the approval of same by parents needs to be forestalled by legislative action if the future generation of Nigerians would remain literate enough. So, of all the programmes/ projects of the Obasanjo administration, none is more appealing and convincing of the government's good intention as the Universal Basic Education. And, if the futuristic advantage of the U.B.E. is considered too, perhaps no other programme would beat it. But, the puzzle is: what was the problem with our educational system? What efforts were made by various governments to fully locate the training of children in schools? Without being fully historical, it is right to present a Nigerian educational system where (even in the absence of oil boom), Chief Obafemi Awolowo enshrined the principle of “Free Education” for the West. This programme was so assiduously run that today, the Yoruba enclave remains perhaps the most enlightened of the Nigerian nation state. It is not too far off, during the Second Republic reign of President Shehu Shagari, that we witnessed the implementation of the Universal Primary Education (UPE) which made that level of education free for all in Nigeria. We have also heard of huge sums of money earmarked and spent on Nomadic Education (which is the education for Nomads). We heard, at that time, of such phrases as “educationally disadvantaged states”. There was so much talk about fallen standards of education. In fact, during the Buhari administration, there was the case of a State where a special programme was arranged for secondary pupils to teach them how to write the letters of the English alphabet. Are you puzzled how these children passed the primary level? All these point to the fact that the problem with any programme on education may be with the people, not the project. This dire position was taken by the National Coordinator of the UBE himself, Professor P. Obayan when he acknowledged the impressive enthusiasm of Nigerians for UBE , but added that the only problem that might hinder the success of the programme was what he chose to call the “Nigerian factor”. Reporting on this matter, Obiechina (2001) conjectured that: Though Professor Obayan did not fully explain his concept of the Nigerian factor, it was apparent that he might have been referring to the usual difficulties that go with implementation of public programmes in the country. Nigerians may not be aware that the UBE is a response to the sorry state of the nation's school system and infrastructure by the Federal Government. In chronicling the infrastructural decay of Nigerian schools and the challenges facing UBE, the National Post (2000) wrote that: …All around the nation, tales of dilapidation have continued to pour out. From Niger State, it was disclosed by Alhaji Aliyu Garafini, the chairman of the State's Primary Education Board (SPEB) that the government would require about 3,501 additional classrooms to ensure successful take off of UBE. Garafini also pointed out the need to renovate 2,042 dilapidated classrooms and provide 115,755 addi-tional furniture before the scheme can commence. The situation is worse in many other states, especially the Southern States where pupil enrolment usually far exceeds the capabilities of government. It is often a pitiable spectacle to behold pupils and their teachers clustered under the shade of trees while learning goes on for the reason that the roofs of the classrooms have either gone down due to age or blown off by windstorm. Obayan (2001), who left the plum job of a Director with UNESCO to prosecute the UBE programme, pointed out that the Programme is about people and foundations. While acknowledging that it was the hopelessness of the educational system which had made many Nigerians to learn trading while they were still of school age, Obayan insisted that the UBE is just a necessary foundation in curing the educational ills of the country. He noted that if a young man of sixteen opts out of school and goes to trade, it is an indictment on the educational institution. Even though the UBE Programme which was launched by President Obasanjo in September, 1999 was described as a declaration without action in some circles, the national coordinator said: …So, part of the reform is to ensure that the schools educate. But I think the second side of that coin is this: UBE is also catering for the fifteen to sixteen year-olds out of school bracket. They may be Almajiris in some parts of the country, they may be Area boys, they may be Apprentices in other parts; they may even be Prostitutes. This position answers the presentation of Oyedeni (2000) that it would be an abuse of common sense to restrict the Almajiri system to the North since the other parts of the country are also being affected with their own Almajiri system which the UBE must combat. It may be of interest to some of us to know that the UBE is not a replacement for, say nomadic education. The truth, according to Etim, is that “nomadic education is going pari passu with the UBE; it is part of the UBE programme.” The difficulties of prosecuting the UBE are enormous including the funds. Etim stated that the UBE exercise is going to be costly pointing out that no state gave an estimate of less than N9 billion. Though Obayan gave the impression that a lot of money is required for the project, he baffled listeners nationwide when he granted a radio interview that not less than N120 billion was required for the effective takeoff of the UBE. Giving a ray of hope, Modibbo (2000) said that “given the level of preparation that we have reached in planning for UBE, and considering the seriousness of Government to it, I am quite optimistic that UBE may not suffer from the ills of past education programmes.” Nagging issues, like training of required manpower to handle the UBE Programme, is what the National Teachers' Institute (NTI) would try to do. We were told that one interesting feature of the intensive teachers training programme is that the trainees will enjoy some form of incentives from the Federal Ministry of Education throughout the three-month training. But, is training all that is needed to get the right teachers for the education system? Of course, the UBE may rely on the PTF National Educational Materials Procurement Programme where billions of naira was said to have been spent to acquire textbooks, laboratory chemicals, dusters, chalk, wall maps and charts, pencils, mathematical sets, etc. The hard truth is that: any meaningful educational programme like the UBE must go beyond the rhetorics of book acquisition to the real business of putting in place a functional school library system: a very basic ingredient in the teaching and learning process. CONCEPTUALIZING THE SCHOOL LIBRARY It may look an easy one if we are asked to delineate the school library environ-ment which is why a given high degree of care is required to ensure proper under-standing and appreciation. Let us quickly point out that the National Policy on Educa-tion (1977) stated that we can define the school library environment to consist of: teachers and students/pupils who are engaged in activities most of which involve the use of materials; the whole setting is teaching and learning based. The foundation of this kind of service is interaction of activities with materials that produce maximum student learning. In such an environment a curri-culum that is needed to be taught is set out, instructional strategies are laid out and appropriate learning situations are developed which will deli-berately make learning easy and interesting to all students/pupils. In contra-distinction, Elaturoti (1978) posited that the school library is a collection of materials, organized and appropriately housed for use and that selection of school library materials is determined by the school curriculum and the various teaching methods of teachers and learning styles of students. At a different forum, Elaturoti (1983) further argued that: if the school single minded objective is to educate through effective teaching and its maximum function is to foster learning, the school library's chief function can only be an instrument to achieve this goal. Rassoff (1971) described the school library as an instructional centre supplying not only the basic necessary information materials but also providing the incentives, the guidance, and the climate essential and conducive for learning. That the school library is a worthy arm of the education of the child is confirmed by Edoziem (1999), Okoro (2000), and Asiegbu (1999) in different studies on school libraries. The importance of the school library in the proper education of the child was the motivation for the study in 1974 by Ogunsheye (1978) which result showed that the experimental children performed significantly better than the control group in reading skills, language, etc. Ekpong (1972) was conc sure that school libraries encourage children to love and use books for broadening their ideas and that these children would continue to use books for that purpose even after leaving school. In his own submission, in a well-written paper, Ajala (1999) chronicled the inestimable role the school library stands to serve in the proper education of any given child which belies the ingrained idea in the provisions of the National Policy on Education that “libraries are one of the most important educational services. Every state ministry of Education needs to provide funds for the establishment of libraries in all our educational institutions to train librarians and library assistants for these services.” Library materials include books, magazines, journals, newspapers, micro-forms, transparencies, slides, charts, maps, globes, kits, phonodisks, tapes, and any item on which information is stored. The school library is a collection of books especially cared for by authorized personnel in prescribed, approved accommodation but which provides facilities for its utilization by people who for any reason desire the knowledge of its content. The school library can be regarded as the home of knowledge, the house of all reading materials, the area where necessary information are obtained and the laboratory of all laboratories. There is no doubt, however, that any functional school library must have the three elements books, personnel, and accommodation, to enable users respond positively to it. Walls (1976) was of the view that the label “school library” nearly always covers an extensible collection of anything which you could use for an educational purpose: books, pictures, documents, films, objects, tapes and records. In summary, the conceptualization of the school library is wide and far-reaching depending on which side of the divide one is. This brand of the library system can only become effective through a harmonious working relationship involving the library and adequate and well trained library staff. Teachers and students/pupils should be educated to recognize the scope and limits of the school library and to develop the necessary basic library skills. THE IMPORTANCE OF A LIBRARY IN A SCHOOL The importance of a school library can only be sought after by the uninitiated as anyone truly at home with the learning process would be in a position to appreciate the tremendous role which the school library plays in the proper education of the child. We may start by citing Wali (1978) when he wrote that the school library is “the hub of the school the axis on which the intellectual life of the school revolves.” Ogunyemi (1977) pointed out some of the functions of the school library association which includes, among other things, the promotion of establishment of a library in every school; ensuring that government policies on school library are safe-guarded; serving as a forum for friends of school libraries to meet and discuss common problems; as well as showing concern for effective use of libraries in Nigeria. Ogunsheye (1978a) stated that the aims and objectives of school library include, among others: To serve the parent institution, that is, the school as a centre for instructional materials to meet the needs of students and teachers. To provide individual reading guidance and assistance to the students so that each of them would derive maximum enjoyment and satisfaction in what he/she reads. To develop reading habits in our students so that they may gain valuable experience and skills in reading wide and fast. To aid the students/pupils to acquire the ability of sound judgement and appreciation which is essential in interpreting and evaluating accurately what they read. Commenting at a different setting, Ogunsheye (1978b) stated that formal education is not only intended to give the student/pupil the opportunity to acquire some knowledge and skills to enable him to live a full life, but also to inculcate in him an acquiring mind and the ability to investigate, discover, select and present books as a source for investigation and research as well as for recreation. This condition is already the accepted norm in developed countries but taken for granted in Nigeria. Okwori (1979) pointed out that training in the use of books should be considered a necessary part of the education process and school libraries should serve as one of the sources of information for the teacher-librarian. Odewale (l982) notes that it is important for a teacher-librarian to understand how children can make the most effective use of primary and post-primary school library. Let it be clearly stated that it is wrong to assume that primary and post-primary school children are too young to read books since the counter-argument is the matter of finding the right books for such a child: a book for a six year old child may consist almost entirely of pictures, and drawing of subjects or objects they can recognize with guidance and assistance. The relevance of the school library is pronged on the teacher-librarian's sacrifices and contributions which made Blocksman (1972) to state that: A good school library with an enthusiastic teacher-librarian will help to develop in the students or pupils a taste for reading; a desire to explore vast world of books. If a student is taught to read well and if given a good selection of books to choose from, he will educate himself and enjoy doing it. There is no downplaying the importance of the child learning how to use a library since he/she would learn how to find the information desired and would later be in a position to make full use of public and academic libraries' facilities. Apeji (1991) and Ahanene (1983) are in agreement that the school library is the bedrock of academic excellence of any educational institution which should house a wide variety of library materials and resources that will enrich and support the educational programme of the school. “The school library must provide to the students,” according to Kujoth (1969), “good books relevant to their needs.” A school library is expected to provide materials outside the subject taught in the classroom. The core role played by the school library in the overall education of the child made Ekechukwu (1971) to argue that “the classroom instruction builds knowledge and the school library expands knowledge.” In a non-literate society like Nigeria, in a non-book world such as ours, the school library introduces the children for the time to a world of books. Davies (1969), Njoku (1986), Ming (1968), Nickel (1984), and Alan (1976), all agreed (though in diverse language) that the school library is a resource center, a learning laboratory, a teaching agency, and a centre for recreational reading, viewing and listening. The school library functions as a vital instrument, as well as a basic requirement for quality education by enriching all parts of the educational process. It reflects and supports the philosophy of the school, it shares and implements the school's aims and objectives. It is totally involved in the teaching and learning process. Every programme of educational excellence requires knowledge building and expansion. Textbooks supply centre of instruction but the library resources expand knowledge, add variety and extended information. All these point to the importance of making the library a part of the students' curriculum. We may round off this section with the observation of Ifidon (1975) that there could be neither good nor efficient secondary education without a functional library. In other words, the school goes hand-in-hand with a functional school library. It is proper, in the overall interest of our society, to get the right kind of information at the right time. The school library is a tool for sustaining and achieving educational goals. To this effect no expenditure incurred in the development of school libraries can be regarded as excessive in the light of the immense value and contribution to the advancement of mankind and expansion of frontiers of knowledge. CONCLUSION We have said enough here in so far as the profitability of the UBE scheme is concerned. It is right also to note what Maduforo (2000) said when citing the views of Dr Frank Obi, the Director of the Centre for Adaptation of Technology (CAT), Awka on the UBE and technology that: “the Universal Basic Education policy is receiving the acceptance of all and sundry due to its programme of free education.” However, the government should see to it that funds are injected in the area of science and technology and schemes drawn out for our primary, post primary institutions since the success of the UBE programme can only be quantified not by the numerical strength of those that got literate but those who were able to imbibe that culture and consciousness for science and technology. It is normal to have expected the government to first put in place all the infrastructure needed for the take off of the scheme before launching it. This is most true since the first step to actualizing the ideals of the programme is the provision of modern learning facilities and an environment conducive for learning. The National Post observed that the speedy improvement of these infrastructures in our schools cannot be said to be beyond the capacity of government considering the line up of sources of fund for the project. Apart from the budgetary provisions of government at all levels, the UBE Scheme is expected to draw funds from Education Tax Fund as well as other donor agencies such as the World Bank, UNESCO, and USAID. Since the UBE is designed to lay that solid educational foundation for the Nigerian child and as well bring the literacy level to an appreciable height, it cannot do these when the pupils are exposed to harsh learning conditions due to inadequate infrastructure. The Programme should not be seen as the inglorious MAMSER, National Orientation, etc., as the proper conscientization of a people must start with a recast of their psyche. I make bold to say that since the Scheme was launched and run without the basic ingredient such as the library (which is not equivalent to the provision of textbooks), every effort must be made quickly to incorporate this dire component unless the government wants to be seen as playing to the gallery. REFERENCES Ahanene, E.M. (1983). “Library and Information Services,” In Uzo M. Igbozurike (ed.) Social Economic Development of Orlu. Enugu: Fourth Dimension, p.124. Ajala, S.F. (1999). “Library Services in Nigeria and Literacy for All by the 2000AD.” Nigerian Library and Information Science Review, 17, 1 & 2: 28-41. Alan, A.C. (1976). The Modern School Library. New Jersey: Scarecrow Press. Apeji, A.E. (1991). “The Development of School Library Services,” International Library Review, 22, 1:43. Asiegbu, L.U. (1999). “A Study of the Growth and Development of School Libraries in Imo State.” Bachelor of Library Science Project, Imo State University, Owerri. 37p. Blocksman, M. (1972). Enthusiastic Teacher/Librarian is the Key. Enugu: Ministry of Education, p.73. Davies, R.A. (1969). The School Library Media Centre: A Force for Educational Excellence. New York: R.R. Bowker. Edoziem, F.N. (1999). “Evaluation of Library Resources in Three Selected Secondary Schools in Anambra State.” Bachelor of Library Science Project, Imo State University, Owerri, 54p. Ekechukwu, P. (1971). “The Role of the School Library in Educational Programme.” East Central State School Libraries Association. Ekpong, J.B. (1972). “School Library Services in Some Nigerian Schools” In J.E. Lowri (ed.) Libraries: International Developments. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, p.55. Elaturoti, D.F. (1978). “Guidelines for Nigeria Legislation on School Libraries/Media Resources Centre.”Oyo: Nigeria Secondary School Association, p.42. ………………. (1983). “A Survey of Secondary School Libraries in Oyo, Ondo and Ogun States of Nigeria,” Nigeria Journal of Library and Information Studies, 1, 1 (May), p.52. Etim, Fidelis (2001). “UBE Will Collapse if…” Daily Champion Interview, January 8, pp.26, 27. Ifiodon, S. (1975). “1975/76 Budget and Library Development,” Nigerian Observer (5 June), p.10. Kujoth, S.J. (1969). Library Readers and Book Selection. New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, p.174. Ming, P.C. (1968). School Libraries: A Short Manual. London: Cambridge University Press. Modibbo, Alhmed (2000). “One Year of Democracy in Nigeria UBE: The Challenges, the Prospects.” The Post Express, June 8, p.28. Nickel, M.N. (1984). Steps to Service: A Handbook Procedure for School Library Media Centre. Chicago: American Library Association. Nigerian Federal Ministry of Education (1977). National Policy on Education, Revised. Lagos: Federal Government Press, p.20. Njoku, A. (1986). “Call for Functional Libraries in Schools.” Daily Times (8 September), p.13. Obayan, Pai (2001). “UBE is About People, Foundations.” Vanguard, January 4, pp.13, 14, 17. Obi, Frank (2000). “UBE and Technology, the C.A.T. Alternative.” National Post, May 25, p.5. Obiechina, Tony (2000). “One Year of Democracy in Nigeria UBE: The Challenges, the Prospects.” The Post Express, June 8, p.28. Odewale, B. (1982). Teacher/Librarian and Effective Use of School Libraries. Ilorin: Ministry of Information, p.4. Ogunsheye, F.A. (1978a). “Presidential Address; 1st Annual Conference of the Nigerian School Library Association.” Benin City. October 26-29, p.3. …………………(1978b). Manual for Nigerian School Libraries. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press, p.23. Ogunyemi, O. (1977). “Nigerian School Library Association.” Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan. Okoro, Boniface (2000). “UBE Will Succeed, says Rivers PTA Boss.” The Post Express May 25, p.5. Okoro, C.(2000). “The Role of School Libraries in Teaching and Learning in Secondary Schools: A Case Study of Ikeduru LGA.” Bachelor of Library Science Project, Imo State University, Owerri. 46p. Okwori, E. (1979). Uses of School Library. Makurdi: Education Resources, p.3. Oyedeni, Opeleni (2000). “U.B.E. and the Almajiri System.” Daily Times Opinion, June 14, p.9. Rassof, M. (1971). The School Library and Education Change. Littleton: Libraries Unlimited, p.8. “UBE and Infrastructure.” The National Post Editorial, May 25, 2000, p.6. Wali, M. (1978). “The Role of School Libraries,” Paper Presented at the Nigerian Library Association, Zaria. Wali, M. (1978).Handbook for History Teachers in the Tropics. London. Evans. P. 106

PROMOTING IGBO TRADITIONAL VALUES FESTIVALS AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE THROUGH TOURISM CHUKWUDUM OKOLI, DEPARTMENT OF HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM MANAGEMENT, IMO STATE UNIVERSITY OWERRI. From the early times, a main motivation for tourism has been to satisfy cultural interest. People traveled out of their places of domicile to foreign lands associated with ancient civilization or original culture in order to experience such historical heritage. Such travels are still undertaken in modern times for curious minds to get acquainted with alien customs and traditions and also to visit museums and galleries to either admire or collect historical treasures of arts. A group of travel industry experts have used Rafarthan in India, the Moroccan desert, South Africa, Chile, Argentina, South East Asia (including Vietnam and Cambodia) as hot spots for tourism. The links between these places are traditional cultures with their indigenous music, arts, handicrafts, historic architecture, towns and cities. As tourists come in contact with their host communities, social and cultural exchanges take place. Tourists' social background affects the social structure and mode of life of their destination and they in turn pick some of the traditional values as well as souvenirs while returning to their places of origin. In many countries, tourism has become an important promoter of cultural heritage. Igbo traditional values, festivals and historical heritage are rich tourism resources which need to be developed and promoted as products of national and international trade. Preference for investment in culture-based tourism is informed by the relatively low cost of transformation process from cultural resources to tourism products. HISTORICAL ORIGIN OF THE IGBO Origin of the Igbo nation is traceable to two traditions, namely, the tradition of non migration and the tradition of migration. (i) Tradition of non migration:- Eminent Igbo historians, amongst whom, Isichei (1973:3) and Uchendu (quoted by Onwubiko (1991:6) are of the view that Igbo were created where they are now. Quoting an Nguru Mbaise elder, Isichei wrote, “We did not come from any where and any one who tells you we came from any where is a liar.” According to Onwubiko (1991:6-10), G.I. stockly in his intelligence report on Ekwerazu and Ahiara clans in 1931 corroborated this suggestion that Nguru Mbaise, “did not come from any where”. V.C. Uchendu associated the origin of the Igbo with a nuclear area where they were created. He elaborates, “the belt formed by Owerri, Awka, Orlu and Okigwe divisions constitute this nuclear area.” Archaeological, linguistic, botanical and anthropological evidence also do suggest that the Igbo and their ancestors have lived in their present homes from the dawn of human history. If any, Igbo migrations have tended to be small scale and comparatively short spanned. (ii) The tradition of Migration: Afigbo (1973) holds the view that contrary to the earlier beliefs, the Igbo did not migrate from the orient or Middle east, rather they originated from the Niger- Benue confluence six thousand years ago and migrated to settle in the areas they now occupy. Igbo originally settled in the so-called northern Igbo Plateau, namely Amigbo Orlu and Nri Awka, before dispersing to the areas they now occupy and even across the Niger. This view was supported by another historian who wrote, “separating from their ancestral stock around the Niger-Benue confluence in prehistoric times and moving down the Omambala and Ezu river basins, the Igbo established a theocratic dynasty. “ …” (Eyutchae, 1975:4). These two opposing traditions of origin not withstanding, Igbo established their home land in South Eastern Nigeria occupying areas which lie between the Niger and the Cross Rivers, though a substantial minority lives to the West of the Niger (Isichei, 1973:17). IGBO CULTURAL TRADITIONS Studies on Igbo culture were undertaken by Meek and Boston and were reported by Ottenberg (1961). In his own contribution to the issue of Igbo cultural tradition and ethnography, Onwubiko (1991) identifies three types of cultural traditions which can help trace the origin of Igbo culture, namely; “cultural autochthony”, “cultural amnesia” and “cultural certainty”. 1. Cultural authochthony: Based on traditions of non migration and depicts the originality of specific cultural traits as native to a specific cultural area. With respect to Igbo culture, Isichei (1973:20) reports that archeological evidence suggests a long period of continuous settlement of Igbo in Igbo land and also confirms a cultural continuum from the lithic periods to the present age. Simply put, Igbo culture was not imported form outside Igbo land. Igbo land is the cultural centre of Igbo culture. The historian goes further to suggest that Igbo society originated somewhere in Owerri Umuahia axis. From this cultural centre there has been radiation of Igbo cultural influences to other parts of Igbo land and beyond 2. Cultural Amnesia: This tradition is based on traditions of migration and stresses the process of inter cultural exchange and accretion of values and thoughts. Afigbo (1973) observes that owing to the wide variegation in the ecology of Igbo land and also owing to the impact of neighbouring non-Igbo peoples, different sections of the Igbo people, while maintaining the basic Igbo culture have evolved their own local variation which helps to define their identity within the general Igbo cultural area. These local variations are best seen in the multiplicity of dialects, differences in political institutions, social systems, marriage, burial and architectural traditions. There are many instances of this tradition of cultural amnesia, but a few will suffice for the purpose of this discussion. A tradition has it that the ancient Onitsha (Onicha) kingdom was founded by an Arochukwu man called Chima, a notable medicine man. He traveled to far away Bini kingdom, across River Niger to render professional services to the Bini Monarch, Oba Ovaremi. With time he raised a home in Benin. At the end of his services he decided to go home with his large family and his household. On his way back to the East he founded a number of settlements. Chima and his entourage snubbed the primitive natives they met on their way, after acquiring superior civilization from the Binis. They regarded themselves as a superior stock and were referred to as “Onincha” meaning, he who despises others. “Onincha” was later corrupted by the colonialists to Onitsha. The settlements earlier mentioned included Onicha Ugbo, Onicha-Olona, Umunede, Ogwashiuku, Isele-Ukwu, etc. With Asaba and Ibuzo, these areas constitute the Ika Ibos or recently, the Anioma nation. Ibuzo, herself is said to have migrated from Amaigbo, just like Opobo. The long sojourn in Benin and expeditionary migration back to the East caused the Chima clan to suffer cultural accretion. The strong Bini influences they had acquired might have led some Onitsha people to regard themselves as non-Igbo. 3. Cultural Certainty: This is a cultural tradition based on the traditions of migrations in the secondary and tertiary degrees. Instances of this tradition abound among various Igbo cultural groups Isichei, (1976:220) has suggested that Igbo society originated somewhere in Owerri-Umuahia axis and from there expanded to the West, North, North East and South and further observed that there has been some absorption of non-Igbo people into the Igbo society as a result of these expansions and migrations and also strong non-Igbo influences on the Igbo due to cultural exchanges. Separating from their ancestral stock around the Niger-Benue confluence, the Igbo first of all migrated downwards to the Omambala and Ezu river basins and established a settlement which comprises the Eri clan (Aguleri, Umuleri and Igbariam). A secondary migration later took place to Agu-ukwu (Nri) and formed the Umu Nri clan (Nri, Enugwu-ukwu, Enugwu-Agidi and Nawfia). Tertiary migration and expansion to Awka and other parts of Igbo land took place later. After in-depth research and analysis, ethnographers harmonized these cultural traditions and divided the igbo nation into five main cultural groups, representing different types of Igbo society and culture. Group Areas 1. Northern Igbo Nsukka-Okigwe axis, Nri-Awka-Enugu axis 2. The Western Igbo Kwale, Aboh, Ika 3. The Southern igbo Isu-Orlu axis, Uratta-Ikwerre axis 4. The Eastern Igbo Afikpo, Abam, Ohafia and Abiriba axis 5. The North-Eastern Igbo Ezza, Ikwo, Okposi and Uburu axis IGBO CULTURAL HERITAGE Discussion on the concept of culture has ranged among anthropologists, historians, sociologists and literary theorists (Chaney 1994:13). The common ground reached by these experts is that culture represents characteristic and persistent forms or patterns of thought and value by which a social group distincts itself from other groups (Aig-Imokhuede, 1991, Obayi, 1998:27). Aig-Imokhuede (1991) went further to describe five attributes by which culture can be characterised, namely, material, administrative/legal, economic, social and philosophical attributes. By 1700 the Igbo had reached a level of civilization which could have gone a long way but for the unfortunate interruption by western civilization (Animalu, 1987:40). Igbo cultural values are documented in Igbo myths, songs, symbols and signs, pro verbs and riddles and works of art (Onwubiko, 1991:xi) and described in terms of the attributes identified by Aig-Imokhuede (1991). Material attributes: Material treasures of ancient Igbo civilization were unearthed by various archeological excavations. The high point of the material evidence of Igbo culture was the finding of the bronze water vase through the excavation at the backyard of Josiah Anozie at Igboukwu in 1939. Igboukwu bronze is one of Nigeria's cultural heritage being exhibited at the National Museum, Onikan, Lagos. Other Igbo culture material attributes include ornaments e.g. coral beads, “Jigida”, iron hoes spears and matchets, loin cloth, earthen pots, harp, carved wooden doors and gates, yam barn, carved stools and walking stick, wooden masks, the gourd keg and animal hoofs and of course the wine tapping equipment (“ete”, “mma-atu” and “ebele”). Administrative Attributes: According to Animalu (1990:40), the model of political organisation reached by the Igbo at about 1700 is a “nuclear' one based on the village group or clan in which the binding force diminished with the increasing size of the group. Igbo are generally known for their republican disposition and their ethnic identity is founded on democratic ideals. However, it is misleading to interpret these political traits to mean, “Igbo enwe eze”. That is, the Igbo have no kings.” Though, the Igbo are generally independent minded, yet, they easily submit to wise counsel and constituted higher authority. The system of governance in traditional Igbo nuclear community is both theocratic and gerontocratic. Divination and the voice of the elders are the main instruments of governance as the Oracles and the elders are consulted before major decisions are taken in Igbo villages. Kinsmen or folks play a major role in Igbo democratic process. Democracy in Igbo perspective is essentially government of the people by “Umunna” for the people. The titled caste known as the “Nze na Ozo” constitute the custodian of Igbo traditional customs and represent the “Upper” legislative chamber. In the wider context, the Igwe-in-council is the highest traditional authority in any Igbo community. 4. Economic Attributes: The Igbo have an age long philosophy of economic determinism which is rooted in commerce and industry (Okoli, 2001:52), concrete personal achievement is highly recognized in Igbo land. The high-flight achiever is not only held in high esteem but may also be a recipient of many honorific titles and awards. The Igbo believe that when a young man washes his hands with great achievements he can then dine with the elders. This achievement instinct is the motive force that drives the Igbo man along the economic path. The Igbo may not be good administrators and politicians, but definitely they excel in business. Trading is the main economic activity undertaken by Ndigbo. Archeological findings show that cowries were used as the medium of exchange in buying and selling. The Igbo have her market days, namely, Afor, Nkwo, Eke and Orie. These market days form the basis of Igbo calendar. Markets located in strategic places attract people or traders from far away neighbouring towns and develop to become major markets in the cultural areas. Towns where these big markets are located also become popular. There is orie-Umunna, Eke-Atta, Otu-Nkwo; Nkwo-Nnewi, Nkwo-Igbo, Oye-Olisa (Ogbunike) etc. On the day of a major market, every other occupation has to be set aside to enable virtually every body to go to the market. Farming is another popular economic activity undertaken by Igbo households. During the planting and harvesting seasons, virtually every member of the household is involved. While the men concentrate on yam cultivation, women and children cultivate cocoyams and vegetables. The men folk, in their past times, engage in handicrafts- making of tatch sheets, twines, carving of mortar and pestle etc. The men folk also engage in communal building of mud houses and fences. Women and children make baskets, earthen pots and brooms. Archeological evidence showed that Igbo forebears engaged in black-smithing. Today, the Igbo are noted for black-smithing and carving. 5. SOCIAL ATTRIBUTES: Animalu (1990:40) sees Igbo social relationships as being complex. The igbo social relationship is observed in the extended family, age grade, title system and cult association, marriage institutions, etc. (i) Extended family system: According to Onwubiko (1991:19), the Igbo practise the traditional African way of life based on the philosophy of “live and let live”, a way of life described as humane living and centred upon human interest and values. It is a mode of living evidently characterised by empathy, and by consideration and compassion for human beings. In traditional Igbo society, relationship between individuals is based on recognition of their worth as human being and not only what they possess or what they can do for each other. The Igbo believes in the brotherhood of man and do strictly relate in terms of blood relationship not based on parenthood. Your kinsman is your brother. He may even be your distant cousin or nephew. Igbo culture de-emphasizes nuclear family and emphasizes extended family. A good number of Igbo men and women occupying important positions in the society today might have been orphaned and had to be brought up by their elder brother and sisters, uncles and aunts and even distant relations. Title Taking: In traditional Igbo society, title taking is a status symbol. In most Igbo areas only titled men (“Nze na Ozo”) hold political offices and represent their families and lineage in the village group councils or preside over cases, making of covenants and establishment of new cults. Socially they belong to the noblemen rank a social status marked out by honour accorded to those holding that position. They also take precedence in all public entertainments and feasts irrespective of their age. (iii) Cult Associations/Secret Societies: Cults or secret societies are exclusive and restricted social associations, generally believed to be clandestine in operation and ocultic in orientation. Their main objectives appear to be protection and promotion of members' mutual interest and to acquire social prestige. 'Mmanwu', 'Okonko', 'Odo' and 'Ekpe ' are some of the cults existing in Igbo land. These cults wield a lot of influence in the society maintain law and order, arbitrate in customary cases, customs and tradition. Membership of these cults is exclusive to males, though in few cases, concession is granted to women. (Iv) Age Grade: This is a social institution in Igbo land. Members are drawn from various age brackets. Each age grade is known by a name, e.g. Chikwado age grade. They embark on development and communal projects and often compete with one another. (v) Marriage: In Igbo land, marriage is an important social institution. Betrothal is an important feature of marriage. At times, marriage is contracted along family lines to cement relationships. Marriage rituals are prescribed by native laws and custom. 5. Philosophical Attributes: Refer to the religious values, beliefs, thoughts and practices which derive from the Igbo ethnic culture of pre colonial era. Igbo philosophical attributes are exhibited in Igbo world view, thoughts and religion. Igbo religion is based on relationship with spiritual beings and ancestors. a. Metaphysics: It is an important traditional belief among the igbo that the world is a spiritual arena in which is seen the interplay of psychic forces. Before the coming of Europeans, the Igbo had specific ideas and beliefs about deities and spirits and their activities. They perceived the reality of the world of spirits, gods and ancestors and the mystic bonds that unite all beings. Whether in their folklore and mythology, in their symbolism and figures of language, in their magical beliefs, the Igbo have a total view of the universe as a continuum a perpetual flow of beings, the visible and the invisible universe, the world of nature, the supernatural, the living and the dead. Edward Tylor in 1871 was of the view that belief in spiritual beings or souls was the root of all religious faith. Those who held this view are called animists and are said to practise animism a word derived from Latin word, “anima” (meaning soul). This concept is in consonance with the religious belief and practice of the Igbo. Elements of Igbo metaphysics include: (i) Fetish: A term introduced by early Portuguese traders in West and equatorial Africa who saw Africans wearing charms and amulets and called them “Feitico”, meaning factitious (man made, like an idol) like neighbouring ethnic groups, the Igbo wore amulets and charms to protect them from harms. (ii) Juju (Black magic): This word is derived from the French term “Jou-Jou”, meaning a little doll or minor deities. The Igbo resort to the practice of juju to invoke psychic forces to intercede for them. This they do by consulting a juju man. The Igbo also used objects in their worship of the superior spiritual being and the lesser beings (the deities) which are housed in the shrines. 'Ofo' is also used both as a symbol of traditional authority and spiritual power. b. Igbo Cosmogony: There exists a dynamic relationship between the Igbo and their ancestors. Omeh (1998:30) observes, “The entire Igbo society, living and living-dead, form an ontological network, a cobweb of relations, a chain-like associations almost like that between the various parts of an organism”. The Igbo believe that their ancestors were human, but they have acquired additional powers when they transited into spirits. Their living relatives seek their blessings, protection and favours and avert their anger by making due offerings and sacrifices to them. Festivals, too, are arranged for these purposes. Masquerades in traditional Igbo cosmogony are the physical and visible manifestation of the ancestors. The Igbo believe that their lives are profoundly influenced by their ancestors who they also believe to have survived death and though they are now in the spiritual world but still take a lively interest in their affairs. The Igbo culture of communion with ancestors and their influences in their affairs is also displayed in their belief in reincarnation the “return” of the dead forbears in the newly born. The Igbo convince themselves that a child is a reincarnate of a dead ancestor if that child exhibits human features or characteristics of the living dead. The Igbo word for re-incarnation is “Ilo uwa” a return to the world. However, an eminent Igbo philosopher thinks that the term 'reincarnation' is grossly erroneous and misleading and rather suggested a number of alternative terms including “living-perpetuation” of the ancestor (Onyewuenyi 1996:44). IGBO CULTURAL TREASURES Igbo cultural heritage is rich and unique. Some of the Igbo cultural artifacts, sites and practices which could be of interest to other ethnic groups and aliens are highlighted by Ajadike (1998:40): 1. Unique child na1ming, initiation, traditional wedding, funeral and Igwe installation ceremonies. 2. Palaces, shrines, deities, art galleries (holding highly prized art works bronze, ivory, terra cota artifacts), works of Awka carvers and black smiths and Igbo traditional settings compounds and village squares. 3. Wrestling contests, masquerades, dancing troupes and other cultural displays. 4. Festivals Ofala, Iri-ji, mmanwu festival 5. Documentary: Igbo cultural values are documented in Igbo myths, songs, symbols and signs, proverbs, riddles and works of art. Mbari is considered to be a culmination of socio-cultural message documented and transmitted through art forms. 6. Igbo language- Expressed in speech, language is an important vehicle of thought and culture. People express their thoughts in speech and both are determined to a great extent by their culture. Speaking a language in essence demands the ability to express one's self adequately in the proverbs and idioms. Igbo language is fairly rich in vocabulary, proverbs and idioms. Proverbs are the palm oil with which words are eaten among the Igbo. PROMOTION OF IGBO CULTURE AND LANGUAGE THROUGH TOURISM There exists a mutually beneficial relationship between culture and tourism. While culture is the product, tourism is the vehicle for moving it around. Wood and House (1991:31-32) summarise the importance of tourism to culture: (i) Promotion of culture interchange and traditional arts and crafts: Tourists make direct contact with the host communities, interact with them, languages or dialects are spoken a

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